Pub Date : 2018-12-27DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0007
Alfred Moore
Distrust is an essential part of democratic politics. Familiar institutions and practices, such as the separation of powers, partisan competition, and public vigilance, are premised on a positive expectation that others intend to harm our interests. Such practices can organize and domesticate distrust, and make it productive for the democratic system. Yet distrust can go wrong in two sorts of ways. One is through partisan distrust spiraling into what I call conspiracy politics as a result of the process of seeking to represent conspiracy-minded constituents. The other is that public vigilance premised on distrust can become a self-fulfilling prophecy, generating the behavior that fulfills those low expectations.
{"title":"On the Democratic Problem of Conspiracy Politics","authors":"Alfred Moore","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0007","url":null,"abstract":"Distrust is an essential part of democratic politics. Familiar institutions and practices, such as the separation of powers, partisan competition, and public vigilance, are premised on a positive expectation that others intend to harm our interests. Such practices can organize and domesticate distrust, and make it productive for the democratic system. Yet distrust can go wrong in two sorts of ways. One is through partisan distrust spiraling into what I call conspiracy politics as a result of the process of seeking to represent conspiracy-minded constituents. The other is that public vigilance premised on distrust can become a self-fulfilling prophecy, generating the behavior that fulfills those low expectations.","PeriodicalId":341612,"journal":{"name":"Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130074868","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-27DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0023
Scott Radnitz
Why do politicians promote conspiracy theories in weak states? Not simply because they or their constituents believe them. Unlike established democracies, in which politics works through institutions, in weak states, politicians need to find alternative ways of advancing their agendas. Two steps are usually necessary for conspiracy theories to become prominent in political discourse: first, national narratives about insecurity make claims of conspiracy plausible. Second, when politicians cannot keep their internal struggles secret or when unexpected events occur, they are likely to make a decisive turn toward conspiracy-tinged rhetoric. This chapter shows how these factors operate with examples from Russia, Turkey, and Afghanistan.
{"title":"Why the Powerful (in Weak States) Prefer Conspiracy Theories","authors":"Scott Radnitz","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0023","url":null,"abstract":"Why do politicians promote conspiracy theories in weak states? Not simply because they or their constituents believe them. Unlike established democracies, in which politics works through institutions, in weak states, politicians need to find alternative ways of advancing their agendas. Two steps are usually necessary for conspiracy theories to become prominent in political discourse: first, national narratives about insecurity make claims of conspiracy plausible. Second, when politicians cannot keep their internal struggles secret or when unexpected events occur, they are likely to make a decisive turn toward conspiracy-tinged rhetoric. This chapter shows how these factors operate with examples from Russia, Turkey, and Afghanistan.","PeriodicalId":341612,"journal":{"name":"Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them","volume":"331 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122842667","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-27DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0009
Jay Cullen
The triple disaster of the earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear reactor meltdowns that struck Japan in March 2011 led to the release of massive amounts of radioactive isotopes into the environment. My research and that of other professionals in the international scientific community demonstrates that the short- and long-term impacts of these releases on environmental and human health will be difficult to detect. Most of the public response to my work on the Fukushima disaster has been positive. However, a vocal minority, enamored of conspiracy theories, responded with personal threats, accusations of scientific fraud, and attacks on my professional and personal integrity.
{"title":"Learning about Conspiracy Theories","authors":"Jay Cullen","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0009","url":null,"abstract":"The triple disaster of the earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear reactor meltdowns that struck Japan in March 2011 led to the release of massive amounts of radioactive isotopes into the environment. My research and that of other professionals in the international scientific community demonstrates that the short- and long-term impacts of these releases on environmental and human health will be difficult to detect. Most of the public response to my work on the Fukushima disaster has been positive. However, a vocal minority, enamored of conspiracy theories, responded with personal threats, accusations of scientific fraud, and attacks on my professional and personal integrity.","PeriodicalId":341612,"journal":{"name":"Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129431059","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-27DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0011
J. Räikkä, L. Basham
Many scholars and journalists have recently questioned why people believe in conspiracy theories. Perhaps equal consideration should be given to the opposing question, why do people not believe in conspiracy theories. People who refuse to evaluate conspiracy theories evenly and openly may suffer from conspiracy theory phobia. This phobia manifests when a person rejects conspiracy theories out of hand without an appropriate evaluation of the available evidence, or if her reaction toward conspiracy theories is one of mockery, contempt, or hostility. Conspiracy theory phobia is likely explained by non-rational psychological mechanisms. In this chapter, we show how confirmation bias and pragmatic hypothesis testing can drive the rejection of conspiracy theories. Arguably, conspiracy theory phobia can distort social science and undermine political accountability within functional democracies.
{"title":"Conspiracy Theory Phobia","authors":"J. Räikkä, L. Basham","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0011","url":null,"abstract":"Many scholars and journalists have recently questioned why people believe in conspiracy theories. Perhaps equal consideration should be given to the opposing question, why do people not believe in conspiracy theories. People who refuse to evaluate conspiracy theories evenly and openly may suffer from conspiracy theory phobia. This phobia manifests when a person rejects conspiracy theories out of hand without an appropriate evaluation of the available evidence, or if her reaction toward conspiracy theories is one of mockery, contempt, or hostility. Conspiracy theory phobia is likely explained by non-rational psychological mechanisms. In this chapter, we show how confirmation bias and pragmatic hypothesis testing can drive the rejection of conspiracy theories. Arguably, conspiracy theory phobia can distort social science and undermine political accountability within functional democracies.","PeriodicalId":341612,"journal":{"name":"Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them","volume":"5 2 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123897114","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-27DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0026
T. Nefes
The “deep state” conspiracy theory is evergreen in Turkish politics. Why is it so popular, and why do political elites continually turn to different forms of this conspiracy theory? This chapter focuses on an amorphous but significant conspiracy theory, the deep state, which argues that a clandestine elite group is determined to defend the Turkish state ideology and the political stability by legal, and often illegal, means. While all political parties in the Turkish parliament talk about the existence of the deep state, they do not agree on who it is, largely because of their contradictory partisan interests. This creates incompatible definitions of the deep state, which cannot convince all parties. In short, partisan conflict ensures the continuity of the deep state conspiracy theory.
{"title":"The Conspiratorial Style in Turkish Politics","authors":"T. Nefes","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0026","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0026","url":null,"abstract":"The “deep state” conspiracy theory is evergreen in Turkish politics. Why is it so popular, and why do political elites continually turn to different forms of this conspiracy theory? This chapter focuses on an amorphous but significant conspiracy theory, the deep state, which argues that a clandestine elite group is determined to defend the Turkish state ideology and the political stability by legal, and often illegal, means. While all political parties in the Turkish parliament talk about the existence of the deep state, they do not agree on who it is, largely because of their contradictory partisan interests. This creates incompatible definitions of the deep state, which cannot convince all parties. In short, partisan conflict ensures the continuity of the deep state conspiracy theory.","PeriodicalId":341612,"journal":{"name":"Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them","volume":"13 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132826854","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-20DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0024
I. Yablokov
Throughout the post-Soviet period various conspiracy theories, most of which have been anti-Western, have moved from the margins of intellectual life to the mainstream of Russian politics. The trauma of the Soviet collapse enabled political elites to offer a conspiratorial reading of the event, and use this both for the purpose of nation-building and for suppressing democratic opposition by accusing its proponents of having destroyed the Soviet Union from within. Russian political elites use conspiracy theories to tackle emerging challenges by dividing Russian society into a majority loyal to the Kremlin, and a minority which is supposedly out to destroy Russia. The state authorities, including top-ranking politicians, seem to be the main producers of this conspiracy discourse; however, they use it with great care, with much reliance on the support of intellectuals who take part both in the production and dissemination of these theories to the general public. Studying conspiracy theories in Russia provides us with a means to comprehend domestic politics and to explain the strategies of the Russian political elite on both the domestic and international levels.
{"title":"Conspiracy Theories in Post-Soviet Russia","authors":"I. Yablokov","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0024","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0024","url":null,"abstract":"Throughout the post-Soviet period various conspiracy theories, most of which have been anti-Western, have moved from the margins of intellectual life to the mainstream of Russian politics. The trauma of the Soviet collapse enabled political elites to offer a conspiratorial reading of the event, and use this both for the purpose of nation-building and for suppressing democratic opposition by accusing its proponents of having destroyed the Soviet Union from within. Russian political elites use conspiracy theories to tackle emerging challenges by dividing Russian society into a majority loyal to the Kremlin, and a minority which is supposedly out to destroy Russia. The state authorities, including top-ranking politicians, seem to be the main producers of this conspiracy discourse; however, they use it with great care, with much reliance on the support of intellectuals who take part both in the production and dissemination of these theories to the general public. Studying conspiracy theories in Russia provides us with a means to comprehend domestic politics and to explain the strategies of the Russian political elite on both the domestic and international levels.","PeriodicalId":341612,"journal":{"name":"Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them","volume":"20 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127839951","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-20DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0028
D. G. Robertson, Asbjørn Dyrendal
Religious ‘beliefs’ are more often situational than propositional. Reading reported conspiracy beliefs the same way deepens our understanding of their function and appeal. Ideas shared by both religion and conspiracy theories—including the paranormal, esotericism, millennialism, and prophecy—are varieties of the rejected knowledge of the “cultic milieu.” The distrust of epistemic and institutional authority in these fields leads to a profusion of syncretic “grand explanatory narratives,” which make meaning and explain away the apparently anomalous or morally perplexing. A religious studies perspective not only clarifies the social function of such ideas, but also offers tools for understanding the people who believe in conspiracy theories in a more human and productive light.
{"title":"Conspiracy Theories and Religion","authors":"D. G. Robertson, Asbjørn Dyrendal","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0028","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0028","url":null,"abstract":"Religious ‘beliefs’ are more often situational than propositional. Reading reported conspiracy beliefs the same way deepens our understanding of their function and appeal. Ideas shared by both religion and conspiracy theories—including the paranormal, esotericism, millennialism, and prophecy—are varieties of the rejected knowledge of the “cultic milieu.” The distrust of epistemic and institutional authority in these fields leads to a profusion of syncretic “grand explanatory narratives,” which make meaning and explain away the apparently anomalous or morally perplexing. A religious studies perspective not only clarifies the social function of such ideas, but also offers tools for understanding the people who believe in conspiracy theories in a more human and productive light.","PeriodicalId":341612,"journal":{"name":"Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them","volume":"56 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125100799","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-20DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0022
Hugo Drochon
From JFK to the X-Files to Trump, are conspiracy theories the preserve of the United States? Drawing on two YouGov surveys—the first of their kind—in Great Britain in February 2015 and across Europe (Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Poland, Portugal, and Sweden) in March 2016, this chapter shows that the British and Europeans are as likely to believe in conspiracy theories as are their American counterparts. The surveys suggest that political and economic exclusion are the greatest predictors of conspiracy theorizing. Policies that promote political and economic integration may therefore help reduce conspiracy theorizing.
{"title":"Who Believes in Conspiracy Theories in Great Britain and Europe?","authors":"Hugo Drochon","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0022","url":null,"abstract":"From JFK to the X-Files to Trump, are conspiracy theories the preserve of the United States? Drawing on two YouGov surveys—the first of their kind—in Great Britain in February 2015 and across Europe (Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Poland, Portugal, and Sweden) in March 2016, this chapter shows that the British and Europeans are as likely to believe in conspiracy theories as are their American counterparts. The surveys suggest that political and economic exclusion are the greatest predictors of conspiracy theorizing. Policies that promote political and economic integration may therefore help reduce conspiracy theorizing.","PeriodicalId":341612,"journal":{"name":"Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them","volume":"21 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127738179","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-20DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0017
N. DiFonzo
Social psychologists have been researching the psychology of rumor for nearly a century. Using the rumor psychology framework leads us to see conspiracy theories as stories that are communicated from person to person and in groups. Why do people spread conspiracy theories, in what sorts of relationships and community networks are they spread, and what is it about these groups or relationships that manufactures and maintains such false stories (and every once in a while a true one)? This approach focuses on the psychology of social interactions and group dynamics involved in conspiracy theory spread, belief, change and maintenance.
{"title":"Conspiracy Rumor Psychology","authors":"N. DiFonzo","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0017","url":null,"abstract":"Social psychologists have been researching the psychology of rumor for nearly a century. Using the rumor psychology framework leads us to see conspiracy theories as stories that are communicated from person to person and in groups. Why do people spread conspiracy theories, in what sorts of relationships and community networks are they spread, and what is it about these groups or relationships that manufactures and maintains such false stories (and every once in a while a true one)? This approach focuses on the psychology of social interactions and group dynamics involved in conspiracy theory spread, belief, change and maintenance.","PeriodicalId":341612,"journal":{"name":"Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them","volume":"11 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116735049","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-20DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0008
Matthew D. Atkinson, Darin DeWitt
What motivates conspiracy theory politics? Strategic, ambitious politicians play a central role in the rise of conspiracy theories. We employ the garbage can model of choice and social choice theory to explain how and why out-of-power politicians engage in innovative and unorthodox efforts to alter their situation. We call these entrepreneurial efforts the politics of disruption. While conspiracy theories are just one tool of disruption, they are typically the most readily available and lowest-cost method available for changing the political game. We argue that scholars interested in explaining the propagation of conspiracy theories should look beyond idiosyncratic psychological factors and place greater analytical focus on systematic political motives and context.
{"title":"The Politics of Disruption","authors":"Matthew D. Atkinson, Darin DeWitt","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190844073.003.0008","url":null,"abstract":"What motivates conspiracy theory politics? Strategic, ambitious politicians play a central role in the rise of conspiracy theories. We employ the garbage can model of choice and social choice theory to explain how and why out-of-power politicians engage in innovative and unorthodox efforts to alter their situation. We call these entrepreneurial efforts the politics of disruption. While conspiracy theories are just one tool of disruption, they are typically the most readily available and lowest-cost method available for changing the political game. We argue that scholars interested in explaining the propagation of conspiracy theories should look beyond idiosyncratic psychological factors and place greater analytical focus on systematic political motives and context.","PeriodicalId":341612,"journal":{"name":"Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them","volume":"16 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126350676","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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