Statistical evidence from 58 countries shows that although people in rural areas are more likely to be in employment than those in urban ones, they also tend to have jobs that can put them at risk of experiencing inadequate labour protection as well as low pay. In particular, rural workers are paid, on average, 24 per cent less than their urban counterparts on an hourly basis, and only half of this gap can be explained by rural–urban discrepancies in education, job experience and occupational category. Developing countries exhibit a relatively wider gap, with the unexplained part also being larger. Furthermore, in many countries, certain groups of rural workers are at greater disadvantage, such as women, who, on average, appear to earn less than men in rural areas. However, institutional and regulatory frameworks, notably those that set minimum wages or seek to promote equal opportunities, can help to reduce labour market-related inequalities across the rural–urban divide.
{"title":"Employment and wage disparities between rural and urban areas","authors":"Sévane Ananian, Giulia Dellaferrera","doi":"10.54394/lnzt9066","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.54394/lnzt9066","url":null,"abstract":"Statistical evidence from 58 countries shows that although people in rural areas are more likely to be in employment than those in urban ones, they also tend to have jobs that can put them at risk of experiencing inadequate labour protection as well as low pay. In particular, rural workers are paid, on average, 24 per cent less than their urban counterparts on an hourly basis, and only half of this gap can be explained by rural–urban discrepancies in education, job experience and occupational category. Developing countries exhibit a relatively wider gap, with the unexplained part also being larger. Furthermore, in many countries, certain groups of rural workers are at greater disadvantage, such as women, who, on average, appear to earn less than men in rural areas. However, institutional and regulatory frameworks, notably those that set minimum wages or seek to promote equal opportunities, can help to reduce labour market-related inequalities across the rural–urban divide.","PeriodicalId":383951,"journal":{"name":"ILO Working Papers","volume":"293 ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140469885","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Nicola Yeates, Chris Holden, Roosa Lambin, Carolyn Snell, Nabila Idris, Sophie Mackinder
The recent social, ecological and economic crises have not only revealed the gaps in social protection systems across the world, but also drawn global attention to the ways in which international financial architectures have failed to support the development of universal social protection systems and floors. Within this context, this paper examines the idea of a global fund for social protection (GFSP) which has emerged as a potential solution to these structural failings. By drawing on the experiences of seven global funds across the health, climate, and agriculture sectors, the aim of this working paper is to identify key lessons that can guide the possible implementation of a prospective GFSP. Through a careful analysis of the governance structures, norms and standards of these funds, the paper makes certain recommendations to be taken into consideration if a GFSP is to be developed and implemented in the future.
{"title":"A global fund for social protection : lessons from the diverse experiences of global health, agriculture and climate funds","authors":"Nicola Yeates, Chris Holden, Roosa Lambin, Carolyn Snell, Nabila Idris, Sophie Mackinder","doi":"10.54394/ibbi1570","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.54394/ibbi1570","url":null,"abstract":"The recent social, ecological and economic crises have not only revealed the gaps in social protection systems across the world, but also drawn global attention to the ways in which international financial architectures have failed to support the development of universal social protection systems and floors. Within this context, this paper examines the idea of a global fund for social protection (GFSP) which has emerged as a potential solution to these structural failings. By drawing on the experiences of seven global funds across the health, climate, and agriculture sectors, the aim of this working paper is to identify key lessons that can guide the possible implementation of a prospective GFSP. Through a careful analysis of the governance structures, norms and standards of these funds, the paper makes certain recommendations to be taken into consideration if a GFSP is to be developed and implemented in the future.","PeriodicalId":383951,"journal":{"name":"ILO Working Papers","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139329577","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This study assesses the potential global exposure of occupations to Generative AI, particularly GPT-4. It predicts that the overwhelming effect of the technology will be to augment occupations, rather than to automate them. The greatest impact is likely to be in high and upper-middle income countries due to a higher share of employment in clerical occupations. As clerical jobs are an important source of female employment, the effects are highly gendered. Insights from this study underline the need for proactive policies that focus on job quality, ensure fair transitions, and that are based on dialogue and adequate regulation.
{"title":"Generative AI and jobs : a global analysis of potential effects on job quantity and quality","authors":"Paweł Gmyrek, Janine Berg, David Bescond","doi":"10.54394/fhem8239","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.54394/fhem8239","url":null,"abstract":"This study assesses the potential global exposure of occupations to Generative AI, particularly GPT-4. It predicts that the overwhelming effect of the technology will be to augment occupations, rather than to automate them. The greatest impact is likely to be in high and upper-middle income countries due to a higher share of employment in clerical occupations. As clerical jobs are an important source of female employment, the effects are highly gendered. Insights from this study underline the need for proactive policies that focus on job quality, ensure fair transitions, and that are based on dialogue and adequate regulation.","PeriodicalId":383951,"journal":{"name":"ILO Working Papers","volume":"13 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126461830","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The ILO human-centred agenda puts the needs, aspirations and rights of all people at the heart of economic, social and environmental policies. At the enterprise level, this approach calls for broader employee representation and involvement that could be powerful factors for productivity growth. However, the implementation of the human-centred agenda at the workplace level may be challenged by the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in various areas of corporate human resource management (HRM). While firms are enthusiastically embracing AI and digital technology in a number of HRM areas, their understanding of how such innovations affect the workforce often lags behind or is not viewed as a priority. This paper offers guidance as to when and where the use of AI in HRM should be encouraged, and where it is likely to cause more problems than it solves.
{"title":"Artificial intelligence in human resource management: a challenge for the human-centred agenda?","authors":"P. Cappelli, Nikolai Rogovsky","doi":"10.54394/ohvv4382","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.54394/ohvv4382","url":null,"abstract":"The ILO human-centred agenda puts the needs, aspirations and rights of all people at the heart of economic, social and environmental policies. At the enterprise level, this approach calls for broader employee representation and involvement that could be powerful factors for productivity growth. However, the implementation of the human-centred agenda at the workplace level may be challenged by the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in various areas of corporate human resource management (HRM). While firms are enthusiastically embracing AI and digital technology in a number of HRM areas, their understanding of how such innovations affect the workforce often lags behind or is not viewed as a priority. This paper offers guidance as to when and where the use of AI in HRM should be encouraged, and where it is likely to cause more problems than it solves.","PeriodicalId":383951,"journal":{"name":"ILO Working Papers","volume":"30 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123240226","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Digital data and the social license governing its use are fundamental to a new wave of digital technology innovations needed to address the looming social policy challenges. To address these modern social policy challenges, social security needs to reinforce the capabilities for digital enabled human decision making. To enable the latter, digital data, once collected in raw form is refined and transformed as it moves through the data lifecycle of research, policy, program design, service delivery and evaluation. Social policy thinking and decision making is informed by these new and innovative data products emerging at each phase of the data life cycle. The human dimension, guided by insight and knowledge from a dynamic evidence base of digital data, is essential for managing the risks (i.e., privacy, security, ethics) while achieving the benefits (i.e., better social outcomes for stronger societies). The performance and integrity of human decision-makers in managing these risks for the public good will determine the direction of public trust and confidence in the social security administration
{"title":"Effects of digitalization on the human centricity of social security administration and services","authors":"Brian Lee-Archer","doi":"10.54394/pmpd3825","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.54394/pmpd3825","url":null,"abstract":"Digital data and the social license governing its use are fundamental to a new wave of digital technology innovations needed to address the looming social policy challenges. To address these modern social policy challenges, social security needs to reinforce the capabilities for digital enabled human decision making. To enable the latter, digital data, once collected in raw form is refined and transformed as it moves through the data lifecycle of research, policy, program design, service delivery and evaluation. Social policy thinking and decision making is informed by these new and innovative data products emerging at each phase of the data life cycle. The human dimension, guided by insight and knowledge from a dynamic evidence base of digital data, is essential for managing the risks (i.e., privacy, security, ethics) while achieving the benefits (i.e., better social outcomes for stronger societies). The performance and integrity of human decision-makers in managing these risks for the public good will determine the direction of public trust and confidence in the social security administration","PeriodicalId":383951,"journal":{"name":"ILO Working Papers","volume":"67 4 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129557157","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
V. Schmidt, E. Webster, Siviwe Mhlana, Kally Forrest
Negotiations are a valuable and important tool for increasing the voice of workers in the informal economy. This paper provides empirical evidence from Africa, Asia and the Americas on negotiations and collective bargaining by workers in the informal economy. These practices demonstrate that negotiations involving workers in the informal economy, including those that culminate in collective agreements, are key to ensuring the fair distribution of the fruits of economic progress and labour protection to workers in many countries. They are also an important tool for reducing informalization trends. The paper also shows the multiple challenges workers in the informal economy are facing when organizing and entering into negotiations and outlines some possible pathways on how these can be reduced.
{"title":"Negotiations by workers in the informal economy","authors":"V. Schmidt, E. Webster, Siviwe Mhlana, Kally Forrest","doi":"10.54394/pvtn9258","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.54394/pvtn9258","url":null,"abstract":"Negotiations are a valuable and important tool for increasing the voice of workers in the informal economy. This paper provides empirical evidence from Africa, Asia and the Americas on negotiations and collective bargaining by workers in the informal economy. These practices demonstrate that negotiations involving workers in the informal economy, including those that culminate in collective agreements, are key to ensuring the fair distribution of the fruits of economic progress and labour protection to workers in many countries. They are also an important tool for reducing informalization trends. The paper also shows the multiple challenges workers in the informal economy are facing when organizing and entering into negotiations and outlines some possible pathways on how these can be reduced.","PeriodicalId":383951,"journal":{"name":"ILO Working Papers","volume":"3 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124840913","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This study provides empirical evidence from different regions of the world to identify avenues for platform economy workers to access freedom of association and collective bargaining. It shows that collective protests, the establishment of new organizations of workers and platforms, social dialogue and, to a limited extent, collective bargaining are taking place in the platform economy. The experiences from the ground described in this study indicate ways and a demand to create an even more enabling environment for freedom of association and collective bargaining in order to realize the opportunities of the platform economy for workers and employers.
{"title":"Realizing the opportunities of the platform economy through freedom of association and collective bargaining","authors":"Felix Hadwiger","doi":"10.54394/vard7939","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.54394/vard7939","url":null,"abstract":"This study provides empirical evidence from different regions of the world to identify avenues for platform economy workers to access freedom of association and collective bargaining. It shows that collective protests, the establishment of new organizations of workers and platforms, social dialogue and, to a limited extent, collective bargaining are taking place in the platform economy. The experiences from the ground described in this study indicate ways and a demand to create an even more enabling environment for freedom of association and collective bargaining in order to realize the opportunities of the platform economy for workers and employers.","PeriodicalId":383951,"journal":{"name":"ILO Working Papers","volume":"1987 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125476346","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
South-East Asia has become a key player in global supply chains (GSCs) during recent decades,and the region’s participation in GSCs has had a profound impact on labour markets. This paper presents new 2000–2021 estimates of the number of GSC-related jobs in the region, with an estimated 75 million workers linked to GSCs in 2021—or more than one in four workers. Over time, the region has become increasingly dependent on GSCs for employment despite some short periods of sharp volatility and setbacks, including in 2020, the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. The paper also presents the results of an econometric analysis, finding that the region’s increased GSC participation was associated with some important, albeit mixed, progress in improving job quality. While deeper GSC integration was robustly tied to a rapid decline in working poverty and gains in labour productivity, it also shows that a positive relationship between increased GSC participation and greater wage employment, high-skill employment, and female employment was limited to specific sectors. Several policies could strengthen the links between GSCs and decent work. These include well-designed social protection and labour market policies, and investments in a broad range of skills that allow countries to shift into higher value-added segments of a value chain. Also, deep trade agreements, which increasingly include labour provisions, can help strengthen the link between increased GSC participation and decent work.
{"title":"Jobs and global supply chains in South-East Asia","authors":"Christian Viegelahn, Phu. Huynh, Kee Beom Kim i","doi":"10.54394/plim4684","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.54394/plim4684","url":null,"abstract":"South-East Asia has become a key player in global supply chains (GSCs) during recent decades,and the region’s participation in GSCs has had a profound impact on labour markets. This paper presents new 2000–2021 estimates of the number of GSC-related jobs in the region, with an estimated 75 million workers linked to GSCs in 2021—or more than one in four workers. Over time, the region has become increasingly dependent on GSCs for employment despite some short periods of sharp volatility and setbacks, including in 2020, the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. The paper also presents the results of an econometric analysis, finding that the region’s increased GSC participation was associated with some important, albeit mixed, progress in improving job quality. While deeper GSC integration was robustly tied to a rapid decline in working poverty and gains in labour productivity, it also shows that a positive relationship between increased GSC participation and greater wage employment, high-skill employment, and female employment was limited to specific sectors. Several policies could strengthen the links between GSCs and decent work. These include well-designed social protection and labour market policies, and investments in a broad range of skills that allow countries to shift into higher value-added segments of a value chain. Also, deep trade agreements, which increasingly include labour provisions, can help strengthen the link between increased GSC participation and decent work.","PeriodicalId":383951,"journal":{"name":"ILO Working Papers","volume":"4 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124602024","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
When Covid-19 struck, the South African government declared some of the strictest lockdowns worldwide. The impact of lockdowns on the working classes was especially severe. Initially many workers were left with no income, leading to warnings that a pandemic of hunger may eclipse the deadliness of the Covid-19 pandemic. Classified as essential workers, farm workers were “lucky enough” to continue working and earning an income. Yet, this paper highlights how Covid-19 regulations exacerbated their vulnerability due to a pre-existing lack of public regulation and enforcement of basic labour and transport regulation in the sector. Apart from farm workers, the paper also discusses how informal workers – in this case taxi drivers – tried to leverage the pandemic to push for closer integration into the agricultural sector to create more sustainable livelihoods for themselves.
{"title":"The impact of Covid-19 on South African migrant wage workers and the self-employed","authors":"M. Visser","doi":"10.54394/xnfn9211","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.54394/xnfn9211","url":null,"abstract":"When Covid-19 struck, the South African government declared some of the strictest lockdowns worldwide. The impact of lockdowns on the working classes was especially severe. Initially many workers were left with no income, leading to warnings that a pandemic of hunger may eclipse the deadliness of the Covid-19 pandemic. Classified as essential workers, farm workers were “lucky enough” to continue working and earning an income. Yet, this paper highlights how Covid-19 regulations exacerbated their vulnerability due to a pre-existing lack of public regulation and enforcement of basic labour and transport regulation in the sector. Apart from farm workers, the paper also discusses how informal workers – in this case taxi drivers – tried to leverage the pandemic to push for closer integration into the agricultural sector to create more sustainable livelihoods for themselves.","PeriodicalId":383951,"journal":{"name":"ILO Working Papers","volume":"237 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114676969","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This working paper analyses the role of tripartite social dialogue in supporting green workplaces and, more generally, promoting just transitions at enterprise level. The Working Paper explores the different mechanisms whereby social dialogue has contributed to governing, promoting and implementing policies and initiatives to achieve the above goals, with a particular focus on the role of National Social Dialogue Institutions (NSDIs). In doing so, the Working Paper also discusses the main challenges facing social partners regarding their involvement in these policies and processes, including the opportunities or obstacles created by the institutional framework, the type of technical capacities required and the articulation between different levels of social dialogue. Lastly, the Working Paper provides some policy pointers to enhance the role of social dialogue as a tool to sustain just transitions and extend green workplaces.
{"title":"The role of tripartite social dialogue in facilitating a just transition: experiences from selected countries","authors":"Oscar Molina Romo","doi":"10.54394/mgbg9270","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.54394/mgbg9270","url":null,"abstract":"This working paper analyses the role of tripartite social dialogue in supporting green workplaces and, more generally, promoting just transitions at enterprise level. The Working Paper explores the different mechanisms whereby social dialogue has contributed to governing, promoting and implementing policies and initiatives to achieve the above goals, with a particular focus on the role of National Social Dialogue Institutions (NSDIs). In doing so, the Working Paper also discusses the main challenges facing social partners regarding their involvement in these policies and processes, including the opportunities or obstacles created by the institutional framework, the type of technical capacities required and the articulation between different levels of social dialogue. Lastly, the Working Paper provides some policy pointers to enhance the role of social dialogue as a tool to sustain just transitions and extend green workplaces.","PeriodicalId":383951,"journal":{"name":"ILO Working Papers","volume":"62 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114834587","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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