Practitioner最新文献

It is estimated that up to 80% of patients with Parkinson's disease will eventually develop cognitive impairment over the course of their illness. Even at the time of diagnosis, cognitive impairment has been reported in 20-25% of patients. Commonly affected cognitive domains are executive function, visuospatial ability and attention control. In addition, patients with Parkinson's disease dementia may present with deficits in language function and verbal memory. Psychosis may occur in approximately 40% of patients with Parkinson's disease, and is associated with an increased risk of developing cognitive impairment. Studies have shown that patients with Parkinson's disease with a history of visual hallucinations had an increased risk of developing dementia, four to eight years following diagnosis of the disease. Other clinical risk factors associated with cognitive decline in patients with Parkinson's disease include older age of onset, severe motor symptom burden and in particular akinetic-rigid subtype and olfactory dysfunction. Patients with Parkinson's disease who present with symptoms of cognitive decline, behavioural changes or psychotic symptoms should be referred for further investigation.

There has been a rapid rise in the number of people diagnosed with dementia in England from 232,000 in 2008 to 850,000 in 2014. Currently, it is estimated that the prevalence of mild cognitive impairment in adults aged 65 and over is 10-20%. It is likely that this figure will increase in line with trends in dementia diagnosis. In some cases, mild cognitive impairment may be a prodrome for dementia, and my be caused by any of the dementia pathology subtypes. The relationship between depression in the elderly and mild cognitive impairment is difficult to tease out as they are frequently comorbid conditions and both have been found to be independent risk factors for subsequent dementia: about 10% convert to dementia each year, compared with 1-2% of the general elderly population. It is important to obtain a history of cognitive changes over time, as well as information about the onset and nature of cognitive symptoms, confirmed by a reliable informant, if available. To confirm the diagnosis objective evidence of cognitive impairment is required. However, there are no specific neuropsychological tests for patients with mild cognitive impairment. On neuropsychological tests, individuals with mild cognitive impairment typically score 1-15 SD below the mean for their age and education, although these ranges are guidelines and not cut-off scores. GPs should consider referring people who signs of mild cognitive impairment for assessment by specialist memory assessment services to aid early identification of dementia, because more than 50% of people with mild cognitive impairment later develop dementia.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a common, chronic systemic inflammatory disease of unclear aetiology leading to synovial hypertrophy and joint inflammation. It typically presents with symmetrical polyarthritis of small joints of the hands or feet, but can also involve larger joints, and have associated extra-articular manifestations. Diagnosis is based on duration of symptoms, joint distribution, level of inflammatory markers and autoantibodies i.e. rheumatoid factor(RhF) and anty-cyclic citrullinated peptide (CCP) antibodies. The presence of synovitis or effusion, either clinical or subclinical, seen on ultrasound or MRI, is essential for diagnosis. RA can sometimes present with a large joint monoarthritis or oligoarthritis. Although this is an atypical presentation, a diagnosis can be made in the presence of suggestive serology and/or histology. In cases presenting with monoarthritis, careful assessment for differential diagnoses is needed, particularly in the elderly population where other conditions such as gout, calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease and osteoarthritis are common. Early referral of patients with suspected synovitis via the rapid access early inflammatory arthritis clinic results in significant improvements in long-term outcomes. Hence it is important to consider early referral for individuals with synovitis, particularly if this is affecting small joints.

Androgens play a crucial role in bone, muscle and fat metabolism, erythropoiesis and cognitive health. In men aged 40-79 years the incidence of biochemical deficiency and symptomatic hypogonadism is 2.1-5.7%. Decreased libido or reduced frequency and quality of erections, fatigue, irritability, infertility or a diminished feeling of wellbeing may be presenting complaints. However, a significant proportion of men with androgen deficiency will be identified when they present for unrelated concerns. Important factors to elicit from the history in addition to the presenting complaint include: a medical history of obesity, type 2 diabetes, systemic diseases or metabolic syndrome which all impact on testosterone physiology. A comprehensive medical review will identify agents which can cause low testosterone levels such as statins, steroids, opioids, dopamine antagonists and 5-alpha reductase inhibitors. Alcohol, anabolic steroids and illicit substance use such as marihuana can impact on testosterone levels and non-prescribed drug use should be routinely discussed. The mainstay of treatment in persisting androgen deficiency is to restore normal physiological levels of testosterone by using exogenous testosterone. It may take at least three to six weeks to notice any clinical improvement in symptoms. Men receiving testosterone supplementation should be followed closely and have their testosterone, haematocrit and PSA levels checked at three, six and twelve months after initiation of testosterone replacement therapy. Men should then be reviewed at least annually thereafter.

In general practice palpitations are reported in around 8 per 1,000 persons per year. The differential diagnosis includes cardiac and psychiatric causes, as well as numerous others e.g. anaemia, hyperthyroidism, prescribed medication, caffeine and recreational drugs. Factors that point towards a cardiac aetiology are male sex, irregular heartbeat, history of heart disease, event duration > 5 minutes, frequent palpitations, and palpitations which occur at work or disturb sleep. Other clues suggesting a cardiac origin are abrupt onset and termination of palpitations, positional palpitations, and accompanying symptoms such as dizziness and presyncope. Cardiac arrhythmias are the result of enhanced automaticity, triggered activity or re-entry. The latter mechanism is responsible for the majority of clinically relevant arrhythmias, such as atrial fibrillation and supraventricular tachycardias. The prevalence of supraventricular tachycardia in the general population is around 2-3 per 1,000 persons. AV nodal re-entry tachycardia (AVNRT) is the most common paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia, accounting for nearly two-thirds of all cases. The typical clinical presentation of AVNRT is a sudden onset of palpitations (98%) and/or dizziness (78%). Patients may present at any age and are more frequently female than male.

Although the incidence of testicular cancer has increased over the past few decades, testicular tumours are still rare and many GPs will only see one or two new diagnoses in their career. In one UK study, out of 845 patients who had been referred with testicular lumps or pain, only 33 (4%) were diagnosed with testicular cancer. Epididymal cysts, or spermatoceles when containing sperm, were the most common finding, and were found in 228 patients (27%). The second most common finding was hydrocele, a fluid collection between the parietal and visceral layers of the tunica vaginalis, which was found in 96 patients (11%). The vast majority (95-98%) of testicular cancers are germ cell tumours. In Western Europe, five-year survival for testicular cancer is approximately 95%. It is almost 100% for stage 1 seminomas, but falls to 48% in the poorest prognostic group – non-seminomatous tumours with metastases at diagnosis.When examining scrotal swellings, the key question is whether the lump is intra- or extra-testicular, as palpable intra-testicular lesions are highly likely (around 90%) to be malignant, whereas those lying outside the testis are usually benign. NICE recommends that men with non-painful enlargement or change in shape or texture of the testis should be referred via the two-week wait cancer pathway. Any painful or tender mass within the body of the testis which is not suggestive of infection should also be referred. GPs should refer patients for an urgent ultrasound if they are aged 20-40 with a hydrocele; if there is uncertainty as to whether the mass is intra-testicular or extra-testicular; or if the testis cannot be fully palpated.

Ischaemic stroke is rare in premenopausal women but risk increases with advancing age and doubles in the ten years following the menopause. Up to the age of 75 years men have a 25% higher risk of suffering a stroke compared with women. However, the increased life expectancy of women ultimately results in a higher overall incidence. Twice as many women die from stroke compare with breast cancer. Women with cerebrovascular disease are more likely to present with atypical symptoms than men. Altered mental status (including unresponsiveness, confusion and behavioural change) is the most common nonconventional symptom, and is reported by 23% of women compared with 15% of men. Other nonconventional symptoms reported more commonly by women include face or hemibody pain, lightheadedness and headache. Atrial fibrillation (AF) and hypertension, although less common than in men, are more potent risk factors for stroke in women. Compared with men with AF, women with AF are at increased risk of ischaemic stroke (6.2% versus 4.2% per year). This increased risk persists in anticoagulated patients with a relative risk ratio of 2.0. Pregnancy is a unique risk factor for stroke in women. The risk is highest in the third trimester and peripartum period. Women with hypertension in pregnancy, whether secondary to pre-existing disease, preeclampsia or eclampsia have a six-to nine-fold increased risk of stroke compared with normotensive women. Preeclampsia doubles the risk of stroke in later life. Gestational diabetes is also associated with higher risk of stroke extending beyond childbearing years.