Practitioner最新文献

Asthma deaths in the UK remain among the highest in Europe. The 2014 National Review of Asthma Deaths looked at detailed data over a 12-month period assessing 195 patients who died from asthma and highlighted the avoidable factors in patient deaths. Although faults were found in secondary care, many of the problems related to poor management of patients in the community, both in terms of regular surveillance and assessment and treatment at the onset of attacks. Features which indicate a high risk of severe attacks include: previous admission to intensive care, particularly if requiring mechanical ventilation; previous admission with asthma especially in the past year or repeated emergency admissions; history of worsening asthma in January or February; use of three or more classes of asthma medication; heavy use of beta-2 agonists; anxiety traits; and marital stress. Peak expiratory flow improves the recognition of severity when compared with examination alone. Oxygen should be used to maintain oxygen saturation of 94-98% and it is recommended that GP surgeries have oxygen and an oximeter available. For anything other than life-threatening asthma, a standard metered dose inhaler administered with repeated actuations via a large volume spacer is as effective as a nebuliser. If a nebuliser is used it should ideally be driven with oxygen but nebulisers should not be withheld if oxygen is not available. Oral steroids are required for all patients experiencing attacks of moderate severity or worse as they improve symptoms and reduce mortality, hospital admissions and the need for beta-2 agonists.

Morbidity and mortality associated with cirrhosis are on the increase. In a recent UK cohort study the incidence of cirrhosis increased by 50.6% between 1998 and 2009. Although all causes of liver disease increased during this period, this trend was primarily attributed to rising levels of alcohol misuse and obesity. Cirrhosis generally results from chronic liver damage over many years. It is characterised by fibrosis and nodularity of the parenchyma, which interferes with the synthetic, metabolic and excretory functions of the liver. Common causes include: alcohol misuse, hepatitis B (± delta) and hepatitis C and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Abdominal ultrasonography is a good first-line investigation in patients with suspected liver disease. The most commonly used serum biomarker is the enhanced liver fibrosis panel. Transient elastography is a specialist radiological test, which quantifies liver compliance. Compared with a standard biopsy, it will assess a much larger proportion of the liver and therefore sampling errors should be reduced. The measurements are painless and quick and serial measurements for monitoring treatment response e.g. in chronic viral hepatitis, are feasible and acceptable to patients. Patients with confirmed cirrhosis should be assessed for potential complications (ascites, encephalopathy, oesophageal varices or hepatocellular carcinoma). Reviewing cirrhotic patients regularly in primary care provides a valuable opportunity to ensure hepatocellular carcinoma and variceal surveillance is being undertaken and to give advice on losing weight or reducing alcohol intake.

Actinic, or solar, keratosis is caused by chronic ultraviolet-induced damage to the epidermis. In the UK, 15-23% of individuals have actinic keratosis lesions. Risk factors include: advanced age; male gender; cumulative sun exposure or phototherapy; Fitzpatrick skin phototypes I-II; long-term immuno-suppression and genetic syndromes e.g. xeroderma pigmentosum and albinism. Actinic keratoses are regarded by some authorities as premalignant lesions that may transform into invasive squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and by others as in situ SCC that may progress to an invasive stage. The risk of malignant change appears low; up to 0.5% per lesion per year. Up to 20-30% of lesions may spontaneously regress but in the absence of any reliable prognostic clinical indicators regarding malignant potential active treatment is considered appropriate. Actinic keratosis lesions may present as discrete hyperkeratotic papules, cutaneous horns, or more subtle flat lesions on sun-exposed areas of skin. The single most helpful diagnostic sign is an irregularly roughened surface texture: a sandpaper-like feel almost always indicates actinic damage. Dermatoscopy can be helpful in excluding signs of basal cell carcinoma when actinic keratosis is non-keratotic. It is always important to consider the possibility of SCC. The principal indication for referral to secondary care is the possibility of cutaneous malignancy. However, widespread and severe actinic damage in patients who are immunosuppressed is also a reason for referral.

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common sustained heart rhythm disturbance. Estimates suggest an AF prevalence as high as 2% in adults with an exponential relationship with increasing age. AF is associated with a 1.5-2 fold increased risk of death, and is responsible for 20-30% of all strokes. There are strong relationships with hypertension, heart failure, coronary artery disease (CAD), valvular heart disease, obesity, diabetes mellitus, COPD, obstructive sleep apnoea, chronic kidney disease and lifestyle factors such as increased alcohol intake, strenuous physical exercise and smoking. Assessment should include physical examination (blood pressure measurement, cardiovascular examination to look for valvular heart disease or heart failure and lung examination looking for signs of lung disease or pulmonary oedema), blood tests, including urea and electrolytes, liver function tests, full blood count, blood glucose and thyroid function tests. Signs of haemodynamic instability or severe symptoms (unstable angina, evolving TIA or stroke, heart failure or severe bradycardia) should be promptly identified and lead to urgent referral to specialist care. The CHA2DS2-VASc risk stratification score is recommended to assess stroke risk in patients with AF. Oral anticoagulation should be offered to those with a CHA2DS2-VASc score ≥ 2, and considered for men with a score of 1 and women with a score of 2. Risk of severe bleeding with warfarin should also be assessed using the HAS-BLED score.

Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) includes both ST (STEMI) and non ST elevation (NSTEMI) MI, and unstable angina. The common pathological process underlying MI involves thrombus formation on top of a complex atheromatous plaque, resulting in partial or complete occlusion of the coronary artery and myocyte necrosis. Unstable angina is defined as ischaemia at rest or on minimal exertion in the absence of myocyte necrosis. Patients with ACS typically present with chest pain; classically central chest pain that radiates to the left arm. Additional symptoms include dyspnoea, nausea, sweating and syncope. Patients can present atypically with gastric symptoms. These are often more common in patients with diabetes, women and the elderly. Clinical risk factors should also be considered when diagnosing ACS as this increases the likelihood of a positive diagnosis. Risk factors include: being older, male, a current or former smoker, known coronary artery disease (CAD), peripheral vascular disease, diabetes, hypercholesterolaemia, renal failure and a family history of CAD.A 12-lead ECG should be performed if possible within 10 minutes of presentation or ideally at first contact with the emergency services. Troponin should be measured on admission and at 12 hours. Ideally high sensitivity troponin should be measured as this has higher negative predictive values for MI and enables earlier detection of acute MI. A chest x-ray should also be carried out to assess for thoracic pathologies. An echocardiogram should be performed during admission in all patients with NSTEMI and STEMI.

Type 2 diabetes is a chronic, progressive, metabolic disorder caused by defects in insulin secretion and action resulting in hyperglycaemia. Fasting blood glucose, random blood glucose, the oral glucose tolerance test and glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) tests are all used in diagnosis. In patients with impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance or prediabetes there are minor variations in the risk of developing overt diabetes. The mainstay of management is lifestyle intervention i.e. diet and physical activity aiming for at least 5% weight loss for all these three states which can halve the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Structured education is an integral part of diabetes care and this should be provided at diagnosis. Nutritional advice from a dietitian is essential. Regular physical activity totalling 30 minutes most days of the week improves muscle insulin sensitivity, lipid profile and blood pressure although a total of 60-75 minutes a day is required for reduction in body weight and better metabolic profiles. NICE guidelines acknowledge the need for individualised treatment targets. Lowering HbA1c is beneficial in reducing microvascular complications and may have macrovascular benefits in the long term. However, intensive glycaemic control in the elderly with more advanced disease may not have similar benefits and poses a risk due to hypoglycaemia.

Motor neurone disease is a rapidly progressive and fatal neurodegenerative condition which causes progressive weakness, with normal sensation. It can occur at any age but is more frequent with increasing age. Key clinical presentations include bulbar (slurred or difficult speech, problems swallowing, tongue fasciculation), limb (typically in one limb with weakness and muscle wasting), respiratory (breathlessness, chest muscle fasciculation) and cognitive features (behavioural change, emotional lability, features of frontotemporal dementia). Although survival is typically three to five years from symptom onset, there is significant individual variation. Rarely, survival may be 20 years or longer. Favourable features include a limb rather than a bulbar presentation, preserved weight and respiratory function, younger age of onset and longer time from fist symptom to diagnosis. The patient should be linked to a multidisciplinary team able to provide support from the start with a designated individual as the point of contact, with regular, coordinated assessments, as the patient's needs change and their condition progresses. Gastrostomy is an important supportive intervention which maximizes nutrition, and minimizes aspiration and chest infection. Adequate nutrition and hydration is key to maximizing health and survival. It is possible for a patient to control a computer and speech by eye. movement alone. An important consideration is voice banking where the patient may store their voice before there is difficulty with speech so that it can be used at a later stage if they need a communication aid. Impaired cough and retention of respiratory secretions is frequent in the later stages, and may be managed with physiotherapy. The patient should be referred for expert respiratory assessment if needed.