Human trafficking and slavery offences are often constructed through prominent stereotypes of the ideal victim and the ideal offender. This article examines four common offender stereotypes created by representations of trafficking seen in the media, popular culture, government reports, and awareness campaigns, and challenges these stereotypes by comparing them with international and Australian research and statistics. This comparison demonstrates that the ideal trafficking offender is a myth that must be broken. To support this argument, the article explores two emerging Australian cases involving sexual exploitation and allegations of slavery and servitude that significantly depart from stereotypical representations of trafficking. This shows the limitations of offender stereotypes in explaining trafficking offences and demonstrates the need for greater emphasis on the role of coercive control in trafficking offences, the impact of trust and changing relationships, and the interrelationship of trafficking with domestic violence.
{"title":"The Myth of the ‘Ideal Offender’: Challenging persistent human trafficking stereotypes through emerging Australian cases","authors":"K. Raby, Dr. Nerida Chazal","doi":"10.14197/atr.201222182","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.201222182","url":null,"abstract":"Human trafficking and slavery offences are often constructed through prominent stereotypes of the ideal victim and the ideal offender. This article examines four common offender stereotypes created by representations of trafficking seen in the media, popular culture, government reports, and awareness campaigns, and challenges these stereotypes by comparing them with international and Australian research and statistics. This comparison demonstrates that the ideal trafficking offender is a myth that must be broken. To support this argument, the article explores two emerging Australian cases involving sexual exploitation and allegations of slavery and servitude that significantly depart from stereotypical representations of trafficking. This shows the limitations of offender stereotypes in explaining trafficking offences and demonstrates the need for greater emphasis on the role of coercive control in trafficking offences, the impact of trust and changing relationships, and the interrelationship of trafficking with domestic violence.","PeriodicalId":43972,"journal":{"name":"Anti-Trafficking Review","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-04-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44013281","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Women make up more than half of the offenders convicted for human trafficking for sexual exploitation in Australia since 2005. This article explores how courts construct the financial motivations for women’s offending to examine how gendered structural constraints are considered in Australian trafficking cases. We explore data from the sentencing remarks and appeal transcripts from the ten cases of women convicted for human trafficking and analyse the two most recent cases to explore how women’s financial considerations are underpinned by the gendered socio-economic pressure of supporting family members. Using data from interviews with Australian judges and anti-trafficking experts, we examine the relationship between structural constraints and women’s agency and the relative weight each of these factors are given in sentencing women trafficking offenders. In doing this, we explore the overlap between victimisation and offending and the tensions between structural constraints and agency, arguing that the former must be taken into consideration when sentencing women trafficking offenders.
{"title":"‘It’s About Survival’: Court constructions of socio-economic constraints on women offenders in Australian human trafficking for sexual exploitation cases","authors":"A. Baxter, Dr. Nerida Chazal","doi":"10.14197/atr.201222188","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.201222188","url":null,"abstract":"Women make up more than half of the offenders convicted for human trafficking for sexual exploitation in Australia since 2005. This article explores how courts construct the financial motivations for women’s offending to examine how gendered structural constraints are considered in Australian trafficking cases. We explore data from the sentencing remarks and appeal transcripts from the ten cases of women convicted for human trafficking and analyse the two most recent cases to explore how women’s financial considerations are underpinned by the gendered socio-economic pressure of supporting family members. Using data from interviews with Australian judges and anti-trafficking experts, we examine the relationship between structural constraints and women’s agency and the relative weight each of these factors are given in sentencing women trafficking offenders. In doing this, we explore the overlap between victimisation and offending and the tensions between structural constraints and agency, arguing that the former must be taken into consideration when sentencing women trafficking offenders.","PeriodicalId":43972,"journal":{"name":"Anti-Trafficking Review","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-04-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47975241","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
One common belief in the anti-trafficking field is that the primary motivation of traffickers is financial gain. This short paper describes recent examples of that belief among researchers and practitioners and suggests that it is not warranted by the available evidence. My intention is to stimulate conversation and to call for improved documentation and analysis of perpetrator motivations. I encourage a more nuanced appreciation of those motivations by policymakers and the larger anti-trafficking community.
{"title":"Questioning the Notion of Financial Gain as the Primary Motivation of Human Traffickers","authors":"M. Clarke","doi":"10.14197/atr.2012221812","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.2012221812","url":null,"abstract":"One common belief in the anti-trafficking field is that the primary motivation of traffickers is financial gain. This short paper describes recent examples of that belief among researchers and practitioners and suggests that it is not warranted by the available evidence. My intention is to stimulate conversation and to call for improved documentation and analysis of perpetrator motivations. I encourage a more nuanced appreciation of those motivations by policymakers and the larger anti-trafficking community.","PeriodicalId":43972,"journal":{"name":"Anti-Trafficking Review","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-04-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47653175","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This article draws from interviews with Nigerian women convicted of trafficking for sexual exploitation in Italy to challenge the simplistic public narrative of traffickers as ruthless foreign men who coerce naïve women into migration and sex work. Madams’ narratives shed light on a reality of trafficking where both traffickers and victims share similar desires to overcome constraints imposed on their geographical and social mobility through their migration to Europe. Therefore, the article calls for the inclusion of traffickers’ perspectives into the knowledge on human trafficking, which is mainly victim-centred and justifies the current anti-trafficking approach aimed at victims’ protection and traffickers’ punishment. In the research context, taking into consideration the perspectives of all trafficking actors involved suggests the need to rethink Nigerian women’s indentured migration to Europe through sex work (and policies around it) in terms of attempts to achieve geographical and social mobility rather than transnational criminal activities. Finally, the article provides recommendations on how to address these issues both within the current anti-trafficking policy domain and beyond it, by calling for more open borders.
{"title":"Chasing Geographical and Social Mobility: The motivations of Nigerian madams to enter indentured relationships","authors":"Milena Rizzotti","doi":"10.14197/atr.201222184","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.201222184","url":null,"abstract":"This article draws from interviews with Nigerian women convicted of trafficking for sexual exploitation in Italy to challenge the simplistic public narrative of traffickers as ruthless foreign men who coerce naïve women into migration and sex work. Madams’ narratives shed light on a reality of trafficking where both traffickers and victims share similar desires to overcome constraints imposed on their geographical and social mobility through their migration to Europe. Therefore, the article calls for the inclusion of traffickers’ perspectives into the knowledge on human trafficking, which is mainly victim-centred and justifies the current anti-trafficking approach aimed at victims’ protection and traffickers’ punishment. In the research context, taking into consideration the perspectives of all trafficking actors involved suggests the need to rethink Nigerian women’s indentured migration to Europe through sex work (and policies around it) in terms of attempts to achieve geographical and social mobility rather than transnational criminal activities. Finally, the article provides recommendations on how to address these issues both within the current anti-trafficking policy domain and beyond it, by calling for more open borders.","PeriodicalId":43972,"journal":{"name":"Anti-Trafficking Review","volume":"322 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-04-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"41258834","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This article interrogates the manifestations and implications of the intertwining of migration policies and the global prohibition regime against human trafficking in Greece. In a dramatic reversal of long historical patterns, post-cold war Greece became a migration destination country, receiving a large number of migrants. While Greece’s policies approached the phenomenon as an administrative embarrassment, migrant populations joined the country’s productive structures and arguably made a decisive contribution to the country’s economic boom. The restrictive regime on migration took a further twist as Greece aligned with the global prohibition regime established with the 2000 UNTOC and Trafficking Protocol. The combination of migration and anti-trafficking policies has engendered a punitive overreach that severely disadvantaged migrant populations in Greece. Drawing on our research, we reflect on several common cases where the precarious status of the migrant meshes potentially with the punitive effects of anti-trafficking policies. We argue that the obfuscation of extremely harmful conditions typically experienced by migrants involved in Greece’s economic structures has been the most distinctive effect of the intertwining of migration and anti-trafficking policies.
{"title":"Migration, Trafficking, and the Greek Economy: A comment on ‘the trafficker next-door’","authors":"G. Papanicolaou, G. Antonopoulos","doi":"10.14197/atr.2012221811","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.2012221811","url":null,"abstract":"This article interrogates the manifestations and implications of the intertwining of migration policies and the global prohibition regime against human trafficking in Greece. In a dramatic reversal of long historical patterns, post-cold war Greece became a migration destination country, receiving a large number of migrants. While Greece’s policies approached the phenomenon as an administrative embarrassment, migrant populations joined the country’s productive structures and arguably made a decisive contribution to the country’s economic boom. The restrictive regime on migration took a further twist as Greece aligned with the global prohibition regime established with the 2000 UNTOC and Trafficking Protocol. The combination of migration and anti-trafficking policies has engendered a punitive overreach that severely disadvantaged migrant populations in Greece. Drawing on our research, we reflect on several common cases where the precarious status of the migrant meshes potentially with the punitive effects of anti-trafficking policies. We argue that the obfuscation of extremely harmful conditions typically experienced by migrants involved in Greece’s economic structures has been the most distinctive effect of the intertwining of migration and anti-trafficking policies.","PeriodicalId":43972,"journal":{"name":"Anti-Trafficking Review","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-04-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47508694","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This article addresses the knowledge gap surrounding human traffickers in Malaysia. Based on qualitative interviews with women identified as victims of trafficking, it explores the women’s perception of their traffickers and their migration experience. The article asserts that the term ‘trafficker’ is complex and misunderstood by scholars, states, and state officials; and that trafficked persons may not necessarily detest their traffickers or even regard them as having caused them harm. Instead, traffickers are sometimes considered ‘helpers’ or people who provide work opportunities and a prospect of a better life. However, this form of relationship is considered exploitative by Malaysian legislation.
{"title":"Sex Traffickers: Friend or foe?","authors":"Dr Haezreena Hamid","doi":"10.14197/atr.201222186","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.201222186","url":null,"abstract":"This article addresses the knowledge gap surrounding human traffickers in Malaysia. Based on qualitative interviews with women identified as victims of trafficking, it explores the women’s perception of their traffickers and their migration experience. The article asserts that the term ‘trafficker’ is complex and misunderstood by scholars, states, and state officials; and that trafficked persons may not necessarily detest their traffickers or even regard them as having caused them harm. Instead, traffickers are sometimes considered ‘helpers’ or people who provide work opportunities and a prospect of a better life. However, this form of relationship is considered exploitative by Malaysian legislation.","PeriodicalId":43972,"journal":{"name":"Anti-Trafficking Review","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-04-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"41827697","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Trafficking in persons is a crime and a human rights violation that affects most states across the globe, including those in the Commonwealth Caribbean. There- fore, in the last twenty years, governments have rushed to enact anti-trafficking laws with a level of alacrity the international community has never seen before. While the enactment of these laws is both necessary and desirable, some have pushed the limits of what is constitutionally permissible in a free and democrat- ic society. This article demonstrates that some of the prosecution provisions of anti-trafficking norms enacted by Caribbean governments have encroached or threaten to encroach upon the constitutional rights of accused persons. It concludes that unconstitutional provisions of regional anti-trafficking laws need to be addressed by regional governments as a matter of urgency, as they can potentially be challenged by traffickers with the result being that, if successfully challenged, traffickers may escape liability for crimes they have committed on mere technicalities.
{"title":"The Constitutional Limits of Anti-Trafficking Norms in the Commonwealth Caribbean","authors":"Dr Jason Haynes","doi":"10.14197/atr.201222189","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.201222189","url":null,"abstract":"Trafficking in persons is a crime and a human rights violation that affects most states across the globe, including those in the Commonwealth Caribbean. There- fore, in the last twenty years, governments have rushed to enact anti-trafficking laws with a level of alacrity the international community has never seen before. While the enactment of these laws is both necessary and desirable, some have pushed the limits of what is constitutionally permissible in a free and democrat- ic society. This article demonstrates that some of the prosecution provisions of anti-trafficking norms enacted by Caribbean governments have encroached or threaten to encroach upon the constitutional rights of accused persons. It concludes that unconstitutional provisions of regional anti-trafficking laws need to be addressed by regional governments as a matter of urgency, as they can potentially be challenged by traffickers with the result being that, if successfully challenged, traffickers may escape liability for crimes they have committed on mere technicalities.","PeriodicalId":43972,"journal":{"name":"Anti-Trafficking Review","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-04-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46319523","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Armand King was involved in human trafficking for over a decade. The journal Editor, Borislav Gerasimov, and the Special Issue Guest Editor, Marika McAdam, conducted this interview with him to better understand his motivations and experiences during this period of his life as well as his views on counter-trafficking.
{"title":"Interview: Raised in Pimp City: Urban insights on traffickers, trafficking, and the counter-trafficking industry","authors":"Armand King, Borislav Gerasimov, M. McAdam","doi":"10.14197/atr.2012221815","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.2012221815","url":null,"abstract":"Armand King was involved in human trafficking for over a decade. The journal Editor, Borislav Gerasimov, and the Special Issue Guest Editor, Marika McAdam, conducted this interview with him to better understand his motivations and experiences during this period of his life as well as his views on counter-trafficking.","PeriodicalId":43972,"journal":{"name":"Anti-Trafficking Review","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-04-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"41919884","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Hong Kong Dignity Institute (HKDI) provides direct assistance to victims of trafficking and seeks to break cycles of exploitation through institutional change. Drawing from first-hand testimonials of over 30 individuals we have assisted since 2019 and insight from our civil society partners, in this article, we outline our observations of traffickers and their modus operandi in three prevalent trafficking scenarios in Hong Kong. Our experience suggests that trafficking networks are composed of a complex and fluid interplay of actors with blurred emotional lines between the traffickers and victims. We conclude that anti-trafficking efforts in Hong Kong are hampered by difficulties in identifying traffickers given the elusive nature of their activities.
{"title":"Traffickers and Victims: Opposite sides of the same coin?","authors":"H. Leung, Crystal Yeung, Patricia Ho","doi":"10.14197/atr.2012221814","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.2012221814","url":null,"abstract":"Hong Kong Dignity Institute (HKDI) provides direct assistance to victims of trafficking and seeks to break cycles of exploitation through institutional change. Drawing from first-hand testimonials of over 30 individuals we have assisted since 2019 and insight from our civil society partners, in this article, we outline our observations of traffickers and their modus operandi in three prevalent trafficking scenarios in Hong Kong. Our experience suggests that trafficking networks are composed of a complex and fluid interplay of actors with blurred emotional lines between the traffickers and victims. We conclude that anti-trafficking efforts in Hong Kong are hampered by difficulties in identifying traffickers given the elusive nature of their activities.","PeriodicalId":43972,"journal":{"name":"Anti-Trafficking Review","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-04-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49412759","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This article presents data on defendants in US federal human trafficking prosecutions between 2000 and 2020. Through an exhaustive analysis of court documents, press releases, and news articles, it shows who is implicated in trafficking crimes, how they are connected to their victims, and at what point they become traffickers. It concludes that, while there is no universal trafficker profile, traffickers often exploit a position of trust with their victims, either by taking advantage of a child’s age or by employing coercive tactics. Cycles of such exploitation can even lead victims to begin abusing other victims.
{"title":"Trafficker Profile According to US Federal Prosecutions","authors":"Alyssa Currier Wheeler","doi":"10.14197/atr.2012221813","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.2012221813","url":null,"abstract":"This article presents data on defendants in US federal human trafficking prosecutions between 2000 and 2020. Through an exhaustive analysis of court documents, press releases, and news articles, it shows who is implicated in trafficking crimes, how they are connected to their victims, and at what point they become traffickers. It concludes that, while there is no universal trafficker profile, traffickers often exploit a position of trust with their victims, either by taking advantage of a child’s age or by employing coercive tactics. Cycles of such exploitation can even lead victims to begin abusing other victims.","PeriodicalId":43972,"journal":{"name":"Anti-Trafficking Review","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-04-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43935299","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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