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Automating Abercrombie: Machine-learning trademark distinctiveness 自动化阿伯克龙比:机器学习商标显著性
IF 1.2 2区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-11-17 DOI: 10.1111/jels.12398
Shivam Adarsh, Elliott Ash, Stefan Bechtold, Barton Beebe, Jeanne Fromer

Trademark law protects marks to enable firms to signal their products' qualities to consumers. To qualify for protection, a mark must be able to identify and distinguish goods. US courts typically locate a mark on a “spectrum of distinctiveness”—known as the Abercrombie spectrum—that categorizes marks as fanciful, arbitrary, or suggestive, and thus as “inherently distinctive,” or as descriptive or generic, and thus as not inherently distinctive. This article explores whether locating trademarks on the Abercrombie spectrum can be automated using current natural-language processing techniques. Using about 1.5 million US trademark registrations between 2012 and 2019 as well as 2.2 million related USPTO office actions, the article presents a machine-learning model that learns semantic features of trademark applications and predicts whether a mark is inherently distinctive. Our model can predict trademark actions with 86% accuracy overall, and it can identify subsets of trademark applications where it is highly certain in its predictions of distinctiveness. Using an eXplainable AI (XAI) algorithm, we further analyze which features in trademark applications drive our model's predictions. We then explore the practical and normative implications of our approach. On a practical level, we outline a decision-support system that could, as a “robot trademark clerk,” assist trademark experts in their determination of a trademark's distinctiveness. Such a system could also help trademark experts understand which features of a trademark application contribute the most toward a trademark's distinctiveness. On a theoretical level, we discuss the normative limits of the Abercrombie spectrum and propose to move beyond Abercrombie for trademarks whose distinctiveness is uncertain. We discuss how machine-learning projects in the law not only inform us about the aspects of the legal system that may be automated in the future, but also force us to tackle normative tradeoffs that may be invisible otherwise.

商标法保护商标,使企业能够向消费者表明其产品的质量。要获得保护,商标必须能够识别和区分商品。美国法院通常将商标置于一个 "显著性频谱 "上--被称为 "阿伯克龙比频谱"--该频谱将商标分为幻想性、任意性或暗示性,因此具有 "固有显著性",或描述性或通用性,因此不具有固有显著性。本文探讨了能否利用当前的自然语言处理技术自动定位阿伯克龙比频谱上的商标。文章利用 2012 年至 2019 年间的约 150 万件美国商标注册以及 220 万件相关的美国专利商标局办公室诉讼,提出了一个机器学习模型,该模型可以学习商标申请的语义特征,并预测商标是否具有固有显著性。我们的模型预测商标诉讼的总体准确率为 86%,并且可以识别出其显著性预测非常确定的商标申请子集。利用可解释人工智能(XAI)算法,我们进一步分析了商标申请中的哪些特征推动了我们模型的预测。然后,我们探讨了我们的方法在实践和规范方面的意义。在实践层面,我们概述了一种决策支持系统,它可以作为 "机器人商标事务员",协助商标专家确定商标的显著性。该系统还能帮助商标专家了解商标申请中哪些特征对商标的显著性贡献最大。在理论层面,我们讨论了阿伯克龙比频谱的规范限制,并建议对显著性不确定的商标超越阿伯克龙比。我们讨论了法律中的机器学习项目如何不仅让我们了解法律体系中未来可能实现自动化的方面,而且迫使我们解决在其他方面可能看不到的规范性权衡问题。
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引用次数: 0
Market versus policy responses to novel occupational risks 针对新型职业风险的市场对策与政策对策
IF 1.2 2区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-11-17 DOI: 10.1111/jels.12394
Robert J. Cramer, Elissa Philip Gentry, W. Kip Viscusi

The unprecedented occupational risks posed by the COVID-19 pandemic prompted employers to boost wages and federal authorities to propose hazard pay policies. This article estimates a market-based compensating differential for workers facing elevated risks through contact with the public using CPS employment data for 2019–2020 and occupational characteristic data from the US Department of Labor's Occupational Information Network. The estimated premium for exposure was roughly $820 overall and $1000 for essential workers. These premiums fall short of those proposed—but not enacted—by the federal government and are more commensurate with estimates of the value of a statistical life than were the federal proposals.

COVID-19 大流行带来的前所未有的职业风险促使雇主提高工资,联邦当局也提出了危险津贴政策。本文利用 CPS 2019-2020 年的就业数据和美国劳工部职业信息网络的职业特征数据,对通过与公众接触而面临高风险的工人进行了基于市场的补偿差额估算。估计总体风险溢价约为 820 美元,基本工人的溢价为 1000 美元。这些保险费低于联邦政府提出但未颁布的保险费,与联邦政府的建议相比,这些保险费更符合对统计生命价值的估计。
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引用次数: 0
Network analysis of lawyer referral markets: Evidence from Indiana 律师转介市场的网络分析:印第安纳州的证据
IF 1.2 2区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-11-17 DOI: 10.1111/jels.12395
Jing Liu, David A. Hyman

Using network analysis, we study referrals among plaintiff-side lawyers handling medical malpractice cases in Indiana. The referral network is stratified, with a few highly connected “hub” firms. Firm connectivity follows a power law distribution—suggesting that new entrants tend to associate with already well-connected firms, rather than starting a new network. Regression analysis shows that, for a given firm, connectivity (i.e., node degree) in the referral network and being loyal to a smaller number of firms both lead to better outcomes in non-referred cases. The referral network also became more concentrated over time. The stratification of the market for plaintiff-side representation is reinforced through these processes.

通过网络分析,我们研究了印第安纳州处理医疗事故案件的原告方律师之间的转介情况。转介网络是分层的,其中有几家联系紧密的 "中心 "律所。事务所的连通性呈幂律分布,这表明新加入者倾向于与已有良好连通性的事务所建立联系,而不是建立一个新的网络。回归分析表明,对于一个特定的公司来说,转介网络中的连通性(即节点度)和对较少公司的忠诚度都会导致在非转介案件中取得更好的结果。随着时间的推移,转介网络也变得更加集中。原告方代理市场的分层通过这些过程得到了加强。
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引用次数: 0
The readability of contracts: Big data analysis 合同的可读性:大数据分析
IF 1.2 2区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-11-17 DOI: 10.1111/jels.12400
Yonathan A. Arbel

The plain language movement waged a silent revolution in the last generation, passing nearly 800 laws nationwide with little public debate. The movement asserted that it could scientifically show that there is a widespread readability crisis in legal documents, particularly contracts, that are unreadable to most adults. This article presents the largest empirical analysis of these claims to date, utilizing a dataset of 2 million contracts spanning multiple decades and industries and applying machine learning techniques. The study challenges fundamental tenets of the plain language movement. Contrary to prevailing beliefs, consumer agreements have median reading scores almost indistinguishable from those of daily news articles. A critical evaluation further exposes that readability tools endorsed by the movement are shoddy and manipulable and can produce grade-level differences of up to 4.6 years for identical texts. Moreover, the movement's core belief that Americans cannot read past the level of an eighth grader is exposed as an unsubstantiated myth. These findings fundamentally challenge the premises and effectiveness of one of the central consumer protection policies. These results call for a radical rethinking of legal access strategies, suggesting a shift from superficial readability metrics to addressing substantive issues in market dynamics and focusing on truly vulnerable populations. More broadly, this case study serves as a cautionary tale about the propagation of myths in legal scholarship and the potential for well-intentioned reform movements to divert attention and resources from more effective interventions.

上一代人中,"通俗语言运动 "发起了一场无声的革命,在全国范围内通过了近 800 项法律,几乎没有引起公众的讨论。这场运动声称,它可以用科学的方法证明,法律文件(尤其是合同)普遍存在可读性危机,大多数成年人都无法阅读。本文对这些说法进行了迄今为止最大规模的实证分析,利用了一个包含 200 万份合同的数据集,这些合同跨越了多个年代和行业,并应用了机器学习技术。这项研究对 "浅显语言运动 "的基本原则提出了挑战。与普遍的观点相反,消费者协议的中位阅读分数与日常新闻文章几乎没有区别。批判性评估进一步揭露了该运动所认可的可读性工具是伪劣的、可操控的,对于相同的文本,可产生长达 4.6 年的年级差异。此外,该运动的核心理念,即美国人的阅读能力无法超过八年级学生的水平,也被揭露为一个未经证实的神话。这些发现从根本上挑战了消费者保护政策的前提和有效性。这些结果要求对法律普及战略进行彻底的反思,建议从表面的可读性指标转向解决市场动态中的实质性问题,并关注真正的弱势群体。从更广泛的意义上讲,本案例研究可作为一个警示故事,提醒人们注意法律学术中神话的传播,以及用心良苦的改革运动有可能将注意力和资源从更有效的干预措施上转移开。
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引用次数: 0
The limits of diplomacy by treaty: Evidence from China's bilateral investment treaty program 条约外交的局限性:中国双边投资协定项目的证据
IF 1.2 2区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-11-17 DOI: 10.1111/jels.12399
Adam Chilton, Weijia Rao

The web of over 3000 Bilateral Investment Treaties (“BITs”) is the primary body of international law regulating cross-border investments. Research suggests that these treaties may have had a limited impact on promoting new investments, but that they still may have helped to improve countries' political relationships. In this paper, we document that this pattern was reversed for one of the most prolific signers of BITs: China. Using a stacked-event research design, we find that Chinese BITs are associated with an increase in Bilateral Foreign Direct Investment Flows but a divergence in voting patterns at the United Nations. We then explore two explanations for why the Chinese BIT program led to increased investment while also producing foreign policy divergence: that the domestic political costs of economic engagement with China push countries away, and that there are offsetting international pressures that have stronger pulls than China's efforts. We find no support for the domestic political costs explanation, but we do find evidence that the countries that received increased aid from the United States after signing a Chinese BIT had greater foreign policy divergence with China.

由 3000 多份双边投资条约("BIT")组成的网络是规范跨境投资的主要国际法体系。研究表明,这些条约对促进新投资的影响可能有限,但仍可能有助于改善各国的政治关系。在本文中,我们记录了这一模式在最多签署双边投资协定的国家中的逆转:中国。利用叠加事件研究设计,我们发现中国的双边投资条约与双边外国直接投资流量的增加相关,但在联合国的投票模式却出现了分化。然后,我们探讨了中国双边投资协定项目在增加投资的同时也产生外交政策分歧的两种解释:一是与中国进行经济交往的国内政治成本迫使各国放弃;二是存在比中国的努力更强大的国际压力。我们没有发现支持国内政治成本解释的证据,但我们确实发现有证据表明,在签署中国双边投资协定后从美国获得更多援助的国家与中国的外交政策分歧更大。
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引用次数: 0
Foreword to JELS special issue JELS 特刊前言
IF 1.2 2区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-10-01 DOI: 10.1111/jels.12403
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引用次数: 0
The impact of legal representation in Israeli traffic courts: Addressing selection bias and generalizability problems 以色列交通法庭中法律代理的影响:解决选择偏差和普遍性问题
IF 1.2 2区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-07-01 DOI: 10.1111/jels.12392
Rabeea Assy, Tomer Carmel

This study investigates the impact of legal representation on the process and outcomes of legal proceedings, focusing on Israeli traffic courts dealing with simple traffic offenses. It finds that legal representation significantly increased defendants' prospects of obtaining plea bargains and of avoiding demerits points. However, legally represented defendants were also exposed to higher fines compared to self-represented defendants. Since points are typically the primary concern for defendants, we contend that legal representation improved case outcomes, overall. Considering the simplicity of the process, the minimal legal expertise required, and the low stakes involved, the representation effect was unexpectedly robust. This effect may potentially be even stronger in more complex cases and where the stakes are higher. Unlike previous observational studies, this study reduces the risks associated with selection bias and produces findings that are more credible and potentially generalizable to other contexts.

本研究调查了法律代理对法律诉讼程序和结果的影响,重点是处理简单交通违法行为的以色列交通法庭。研究发现,法律代理大大增加了被告获得辩诉交易和避免扣分的可能性。不过,与自我辩护的被告相比,有法律代表的被告也面临更高的罚款。由于扣分通常是被告最关心的问题,因此我们认为法律代理总体上改善了案件的结果。考虑到程序简单、所需的法律专业知识最少以及涉及的利害关系较小,代理效应出乎意料地强大。在案情更复杂、利害关系更大的情况下,这种效果可能会更强。与以往的观察性研究不同,本研究减少了与选择偏差相关的风险,得出的结论更加可信,并有可能推广到其他情况。
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引用次数: 0
Private security and public police 私营保安和公共警察
IF 1.2 2区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-06-24 DOI: 10.1111/jels.12393
Ben Grunwald, John Rappaport, Michael Berg

Private security officers outnumber police by a wide margin, and the gap may be growing. As cities have claimed to defund the police, many have quietly expanded their use of private security, reallocating spending from the public to the private sector. It is difficult to know what to make of these trends, largely because we know so little about what private security looks like on the ground. On one prevalent view of the facts, a shift from public to private security would mean little more than a change of uniform, as the two labor markets are deeply intertwined. Indeed, academics, the media, popular culture, and the police themselves all tell us that private security is some amalgam of a police retirement community and a dumping ground for disgraced former cops. But if, instead, private officers differ systematically from the public police—and crossover between the sectors is limited—then substitution from policing to private security could drastically change who is providing security services.

We bring novel data to bear on these questions, presenting the largest empirical study of private security to date. We introduce an administrative dataset covering nearly 300,000 licensed private security officers in the State of Florida. By linking this dataset to similarly comprehensive information about public law enforcement, we have, for the first time, a nearly complete picture of the entire security labor market in one state. We report two principal findings. First, the public and private security markets are predominantly characterized by occupational segregation, not integration. The individuals who compose the private security sector differ markedly from the public police; they are, for example, significantly less likely to be white men. We also find that few private officers, roughly 2%, have previously worked in public policing, and even fewer will go on to policing in the future. Second, while former police make up a small share of all private security, roughly a quarter of cops who do cross over have been fired from a policing job. In fact, fired police officers are nearly as likely to land in private security as to find another policing job, and a full quarter end up in one or the other. We explore the implications of these findings, including intersections with police abolition and the future of policing, at the paper's close.

私人保安人员的数量远远超过警察,而且差距可能越来越大。在各大城市声称要为警察减资的同时,许多城市却悄然扩大了对私营保安公司的使用,将公共开支重新分配给私营保安公司。我们很难理解这些趋势,主要是因为我们对私营安保的实际情况知之甚少。根据一种普遍的事实观点,从公共安保部门转向私营安保部门只不过是换了一套制服而已,因为这两个劳动力市场深深地交织在一起。事实上,学术界、媒体、大众文化和警察本身都告诉我们,私营保安公司是警察退休社区和失宠前警察的垃圾场的混合体。但是,如果私营保安人员与公共警察存在系统性差异,而且行业间的交叉也很有限,那么从警务到私营保安的替代可能会极大地改变谁在提供保安服务。我们为这些问题提供了新颖的数据,展示了迄今为止最大规模的私营保安实证研究。我们引入了一个行政数据集,涵盖佛罗里达州近 30 万名持证私营保安人员。通过将该数据集与类似的公共执法综合信息联系起来,我们第一次几乎完整地了解了一个州的整个保安劳动力市场。我们报告了两个主要发现。首先,公共和私营保安市场的主要特点是职业隔离,而不是融合。私营安保部门的组成人员与公共警察有明显不同;例如,他们中白人男性的比例明显较低。我们还发现,以前从事过公共治安工作的私营保安人员很少,约占 2%,而将来会继续从事治安工作的人就更少了。其次,虽然前警察在所有私营保安人员中只占很小的比例,但大约有四分之一的警察是被警察解雇的。事实上,被解雇的警察进入私营保安行业的可能性几乎与找到另一份警务工作的可能性相同,整整四分之一的警察最终选择了其中之一。在本文的最后,我们将探讨这些发现的影响,包括与废除警察制度和未来警务工作的交集。
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引用次数: 0
The influence of the race of defendant and the race of victim on capital charging and sentencing in California 被告种族和受害人种族对加利福尼亚州死刑指控和判决的影响
IF 1.2 2区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-06-16 DOI: 10.1111/jels.12390
Catherine M. Grosso, Jeffrey Fagan, Michael Laurence

The California Racial Justice Act of 2020 recognized racial and ethnic discrimination as a basis for relief in capital cases, expressly permitting several types of statistical evidence to be introduced. This statewide study of the influence of race and ethnicity on the application of capital punishment contributes to this evidence. We draw on data from over 27,000 murder and manslaughter convictions in California state courts between 1978 and 2002. Using multiple methods, we found significant racial and ethnic disparities in charging and sentencing decisions. Controlling for defendant culpability and specific statutory aggravators, we show that Black and Latinx defendants and all defendants convicted of killing at least one white victim are substantially more likely to be sentenced to death. We further examined the role that race and ethnicity have in decision-making at various points in the criminal justice system. We found that prosecutors were significantly more likely to seek death against defendants who kill white victims, and that juries were significantly more likely to sentence those defendants to death. The magnitude of the race of the defendant and race of the victim effects is substantially higher than in prior studies in other states and in single-jurisdiction research. The results show an entrenched pattern of racial disparities in charging and sentencing that privileges white victim cases, as well as patterns of racial disparities in who is charged and sentenced to death in California courts that are the natural result of California's capacious statutory definition of death eligibility, which permits virtually unlimited discretion for charging and sentencing decisions. This pattern of racial preferences illustrates the social costs of California's failure to follow the Supreme Court's directive in Furman v Georgia to narrow the application of capital punishment over 50 years ago.

2020 年《加利福尼亚种族正义法案》承认种族和民族歧视是死刑案件中救济的依据,明确允许引入几类统计证据。这项关于种族和民族对适用死刑的影响的全州性研究为这一证据做出了贡献。我们借鉴了 1978 年至 2002 年间加利福尼亚州法院对 27,000 多起谋杀和过失杀人罪的定罪数据。通过使用多种方法,我们发现在指控和量刑决定方面存在显著的种族和民族差异。在控制了被告的罪责和特定的法定加重情节后,我们发现黑人和拉丁裔被告以及所有因杀害至少一名白人受害者而被定罪的被告被判处死刑的可能性大大增加。我们进一步研究了种族和民族在刑事司法系统各环节决策中的作用。我们发现,检察官更有可能对杀害白人受害者的被告判处死刑,而陪审团也更有可能对这些被告判处死刑。被告种族和受害者种族的影响程度远远高于之前在其他州进行的研究和单一司法管辖区的研究。研究结果表明,在起诉和量刑方面,白人受害者案件的种族差异模式根深蒂固;在加利福尼亚州法院,谁被起诉和判处死刑也存在种族差异模式,这是加利福尼亚州关于死亡资格的宽泛法定定义的自然结果,该定义允许在起诉和量刑决定方面几乎无限制的自由裁量权。这种种族偏好模式说明了加利福尼亚州 50 多年前未能遵循最高法院在 "富尔曼诉佐治亚州 "一案中关于缩小死刑适用范围的指示而付出的社会代价。
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引用次数: 0
Privacy decision-making and the effects of privacy choice architecture: Experiments toward the design of behaviorally-aware privacy regulation 隐私决策和隐私选择架构的影响:设计行为感知隐私法规的实验
IF 1.2 2区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-06-12 DOI: 10.1111/jels.12391
Christopher Jon Sprigman, Stephan Tontrup

The current notice and choice privacy framework fails to empower individuals in effectively making their own privacy choices. In this Article we offer evidence from three novel experiments showing that at the core of this failure is a cognitive error. Notice and choice caters to a heuristic that people employ to make privacy decisions. This heuristic is meant to distinguish between a party's good or bad intent in face-to-face-situations. In the online context, it distorts privacy decision-making and leaves potential disclosers vulnerable to exploitation.

From our experimental evidence exploring the heuristic's effect, we conclude that privacy law must become more behaviorally aware. Specifically, privacy law must be redesigned to intervene in the cognitive mechanisms that keep individuals from making better privacy decisions. A behaviorally-aware privacy regime must centralize, standardize and simplify the framework for making privacy choices.

To achieve these goals, we propose a master privacy template which requires consumers to define their privacy preferences in advance—doing so avoids presenting the consumer with a concrete counterparty, and this, in turn, prevents them from applying the intent heuristic and reduces many other biases that affect privacy decision-making. Our data show that blocking the heuristic enables consumers to consider relevant privacy cues and be considerate of externalities their privacy decisions cause.

The master privacy template provides a much more effective platform for regulation. Through the master template the regulator can set the standard for automated communication between user clients and website interfaces, a facility which we expect to enhance enforcement and competition about privacy terms.

当前的通知和选择隐私框架未能赋予个人有效做出隐私选择的权力。在本文中,我们提供了三个新颖实验的证据,表明这一失败的核心是认知错误。通知和选择 "迎合了人们在做出隐私决定时采用的启发式方法。这种启发式的目的是在面对面的情况下区分一方的善意或恶意。从我们探索启发式效应的实验证据中,我们得出结论,隐私法必须更具行为意识。具体来说,隐私法必须重新设计,以干预阻碍个人做出更好隐私决策的认知机制。为了实现这些目标,我们提出了一个主隐私模板,要求消费者事先定义自己的隐私偏好--这样做可以避免向消费者展示一个具体的交易对手,而这反过来又可以防止他们应用意图启发式,并减少影响隐私决策的许多其他偏差。我们的数据显示,阻止启发式能让消费者考虑到相关的隐私线索,并考虑到他们的隐私决策所造成的外部效应。通过主模板,监管机构可以为用户客户端和网站界面之间的自动通信设定标准,我们希望这一设施能够加强隐私条款的执行和竞争。
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引用次数: 0
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Journal of Empirical Legal Studies
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