Insects navigate cluttered environments using slender, flexible antennae densely packed with mechanosensors, a lightweight, energy-efficient solution for tactile perception. We introduce CITRAS (Cockroach-Inspired Tactile Robotic Antenna Sensor), a miniature, compliant, multi-segment tactile probe aimed at enabling similarly capable close-range perception on insect-scale robots under stringent size, mass, and power constraints. CITRAS (total size: 73.7 × 15.6 mm × 2.11 mm; mass: 491 mg) features eight flexural hinge segments, each with high-resolution capacitive sensors embedded within a compliant multilayer laminate structure, that detect femtofarad-scale capacitance changes induced by hinge deflection. Through systematic mechanical and sensing characterization under both quasi-static and dynamic conditions, we demonstrate sub-degree angular precision (max error ≤ 0.8∘), accurate shape reconstruction, and consistent repeatable performance with minimal hysteresis in slow bending. Under rapid interactions, CITRAS exhibits low damping and rich dynamic responses that encode environmental features. We further validate the system in three core tactile tasks: estimating body-to-wall distance (error ≤ 8%), measuring object gap width (error ≤ 7%), and discriminating between smooth and rough surface textures via spatiotemporal tactile images. These results show that CITRAS delivers a compact, distributed, bioinspired tactile modality capable of reliable environment sensing, filling a critical gap in perception for insect-scale robots. Furthermore, the antenna consumes only 32 mW (excluding MCU), making it suitable for future full deployment onboard insect-scale robots and thus paves the way for autonomous navigation and interaction in confined, unstructured, or delicate environments at this scale.
昆虫在杂乱的环境中导航，使用细长、灵活的天线，密集地包裹着机械传感器，这是一种轻巧、节能的触觉感知解决方案。我们介绍了CITRAS（蟑螂启发的触觉机器人天线传感器），这是一种微型、兼容的多段触觉探头，旨在在严格的尺寸、质量和功率限制下，使昆虫级机器人具有类似的近距离感知能力。CITRAS（总尺寸：73.7 × 15.6 mm × 2.11 mm；质量：491 mg）具有8个弯曲铰链节段，每个节段都嵌入了高分辨率电容传感器，该传感器嵌入了柔性多层层压结构中，可检测铰链偏转引起的飞法拉尺度电容变化。通过在准静态和动态条件下的系统力学和传感表征，我们展示了次度角精度（最大误差≤0.8°）、精确的形状重建，以及在缓慢弯曲中以最小的滞后保持一致的可重复性能。在快速相互作用下，CITRAS表现出低阻尼和丰富的动态响应，编码环境特征。我们进一步在三个核心触觉任务中验证了该系统：估计体墙距离（误差≤8%），测量物体间隙宽度（误差≤7%），以及通过时空触觉图像区分光滑和粗糙的表面纹理。这些结果表明，CITRAS提供了一种紧凑、分布式、生物启发的触觉模式，能够可靠地感知环境，填补了昆虫级机器人感知的关键空白。此外，天线仅消耗32兆瓦（不包括MCU），使其适合未来在昆虫级机器人上全面部署，从而为这种规模的密闭、非结构化或微妙环境中的自主导航和交互铺平了道路。
{"title":"A Soft, Insect-Inspired, Distributed Tactile Sensor Enables Effective Touch Perception.","authors":"Parker McDonnell,Lingsheng Meng,Hari Krishna Hari Prasad,Alexander Hedrick,Eduardo Miscles,Samuel Gilinsky,Jean-Michel Mongeau,Kaushik Jayaram","doi":"10.1177/21695172261425596","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/21695172261425596","url":null,"abstract":"Insects navigate cluttered environments using slender, flexible antennae densely packed with mechanosensors, a lightweight, energy-efficient solution for tactile perception. We introduce CITRAS (Cockroach-Inspired Tactile Robotic Antenna Sensor), a miniature, compliant, multi-segment tactile probe aimed at enabling similarly capable close-range perception on insect-scale robots under stringent size, mass, and power constraints. CITRAS (total size: 73.7 × 15.6 mm × 2.11 mm; mass: 491 mg) features eight flexural hinge segments, each with high-resolution capacitive sensors embedded within a compliant multilayer laminate structure, that detect femtofarad-scale capacitance changes induced by hinge deflection. Through systematic mechanical and sensing characterization under both quasi-static and dynamic conditions, we demonstrate sub-degree angular precision (max error ≤ 0.8∘), accurate shape reconstruction, and consistent repeatable performance with minimal hysteresis in slow bending. Under rapid interactions, CITRAS exhibits low damping and rich dynamic responses that encode environmental features. We further validate the system in three core tactile tasks: estimating body-to-wall distance (error ≤ 8%), measuring object gap width (error ≤ 7%), and discriminating between smooth and rough surface textures via spatiotemporal tactile images. These results show that CITRAS delivers a compact, distributed, bioinspired tactile modality capable of reliable environment sensing, filling a critical gap in perception for insect-scale robots. Furthermore, the antenna consumes only 32 mW (excluding MCU), making it suitable for future full deployment onboard insect-scale robots and thus paves the way for autonomous navigation and interaction in confined, unstructured, or delicate environments at this scale.","PeriodicalId":48685,"journal":{"name":"Soft Robotics","volume":"11 1","pages":"21695172261425596"},"PeriodicalIF":7.9,"publicationDate":"2026-03-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147478610","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-10DOI: 10.1177/21695172261424021
Charlotte M Folinus,Kaitlyn P Becker
The soft robotics field is moving toward increasingly complex and integrated systems, which will contain interfaces between soft components and other soft, compliant, and/or rigid components. Although many soft interfaces leverage adhesion, soft robot designers currently have limited information for selecting appropriate materials and fabrication techniques. Through experimental testing, this article characterizes how the substrate material and bonding process influence the performance of soft-soft silicone [i.e., polydimethylsiloxane-based interfaces], provides a framework for approaching this analysis, and contextualizes the data to provide initial insights into material selection for soft-soft interfaces by showing how the data could be used to guide design decisions. Specifically, this article characterizes five addition-curing silicone rubbers and five bonding processes, and it defines performance using quantitative metrics relating to desirable qualitative behaviors: toughness (adhesive fracture energy), flexibility (maximum localized strain during peeling), and strength (ratio of initial-to-average force and magnitude of initial peak peel force). Together, the substrate material and bonding method jointly determine the failure behavior of soft-soft silicone interfaces, influencing both the achievable performance (toughness, strength, flexibility) and characteristic failure modes (adhesive, cohesive, mixed-mode). Understanding characteristic failure modes can inform design strategies to mitigate interfacial failure, enabling higher-capability soft robots with improved operating loads and component lifetimes.
{"title":"Tough, Flexible, Strong: Characterization of Soft-Soft Silicone Interfaces for Soft Robotics.","authors":"Charlotte M Folinus,Kaitlyn P Becker","doi":"10.1177/21695172261424021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/21695172261424021","url":null,"abstract":"The soft robotics field is moving toward increasingly complex and integrated systems, which will contain interfaces between soft components and other soft, compliant, and/or rigid components. Although many soft interfaces leverage adhesion, soft robot designers currently have limited information for selecting appropriate materials and fabrication techniques. Through experimental testing, this article characterizes how the substrate material and bonding process influence the performance of soft-soft silicone [i.e., polydimethylsiloxane-based interfaces], provides a framework for approaching this analysis, and contextualizes the data to provide initial insights into material selection for soft-soft interfaces by showing how the data could be used to guide design decisions. Specifically, this article characterizes five addition-curing silicone rubbers and five bonding processes, and it defines performance using quantitative metrics relating to desirable qualitative behaviors: toughness (adhesive fracture energy), flexibility (maximum localized strain during peeling), and strength (ratio of initial-to-average force and magnitude of initial peak peel force). Together, the substrate material and bonding method jointly determine the failure behavior of soft-soft silicone interfaces, influencing both the achievable performance (toughness, strength, flexibility) and characteristic failure modes (adhesive, cohesive, mixed-mode). Understanding characteristic failure modes can inform design strategies to mitigate interfacial failure, enabling higher-capability soft robots with improved operating loads and component lifetimes.","PeriodicalId":48685,"journal":{"name":"Soft Robotics","volume":"29 1","pages":"21695172261424021"},"PeriodicalIF":7.9,"publicationDate":"2026-03-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147381328","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-23DOI: 10.1177/21695172261417888
Houping Wu,Chao Tang,Yulian Peng,Yufeng Wang,Xinxin Chang,Yingao Xu,Hongbo Wang
Human fingers are one of the most remarkable organs for handling complex tasks or manipulating unknown objects, not only due to its dexterous and powerful movement capabilities but also its rich kinematic sense at joints and tactile sensing at skins. Shape and tactile sensing are crucial for soft pneumatic fingers to achieve embodied intelligence. Reliable tactile sensing of soft pneumatic-driven robots is particularly challenging due to its large deformation and adaptability. Here, we propose a distributed local curvature sensing-based solution for simultaneous shape and tactile perceptions in real-time. Utilizing 4 seamlessly integrated bidirectional bending curvature sensing units, real-time shape curve, contact location, and contact force can be obtained. Experimental results indicate a maximum shape reconstruction error of 0.3 mm (when the reconstruction length is 90 mm) and a force estimation error of 0.02 N (RMSE, range 0-0.4 N). Moreover, a two-finger gripper was developed; shape and tactile sensing during grasping of diverse objects (varies in weight, size, stiffness) and force-controlled grasping are achieved. Utilizing the shape-sensing and contact-event detection capabilities, dimension of the grasped objects can be recognized in real-time. This work provides an effective, highly robust, easy-to-implement, and transformative perception solution for soft bionic fingers and beyond.
人的手指是处理复杂任务或操纵未知物体最重要的器官之一，不仅因为其灵巧而强大的运动能力，而且由于其丰富的关节运动感和皮肤触觉。形状和触觉感知对于柔软的气动手指实现具身智能至关重要。由于柔性气动机器人的大变形和适应性，使其实现可靠的触觉传感是一项特别具有挑战性的工作。在这里，我们提出了一种基于分布式局部曲率感知的解决方案，用于实时同时进行形状和触觉感知。利用4个无缝集成的双向弯曲曲率传感单元，可以实时获得形状曲线、接触位置和接触力。实验结果表明，当重构长度为90 mm时，最大形状重构误差为0.3 mm，力估计误差为0.02 N （RMSE，范围为0-0.4 N）。此外，还开发了一种双指夹持器；在抓取不同物体（不同的重量、大小、刚度）和力控制抓取过程中，实现了形状和触觉感知。利用形状感知和接触事件检测功能，可以实时识别抓取物体的尺寸。这项工作为柔软的仿生手指及其他领域提供了一种有效、高度健壮、易于实现和变革性的感知解决方案。
{"title":"Shape and Tactile Perceptions of Soft Fingers via Distributed Curvature Sensing for Intelligent Grippers.","authors":"Houping Wu,Chao Tang,Yulian Peng,Yufeng Wang,Xinxin Chang,Yingao Xu,Hongbo Wang","doi":"10.1177/21695172261417888","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/21695172261417888","url":null,"abstract":"Human fingers are one of the most remarkable organs for handling complex tasks or manipulating unknown objects, not only due to its dexterous and powerful movement capabilities but also its rich kinematic sense at joints and tactile sensing at skins. Shape and tactile sensing are crucial for soft pneumatic fingers to achieve embodied intelligence. Reliable tactile sensing of soft pneumatic-driven robots is particularly challenging due to its large deformation and adaptability. Here, we propose a distributed local curvature sensing-based solution for simultaneous shape and tactile perceptions in real-time. Utilizing 4 seamlessly integrated bidirectional bending curvature sensing units, real-time shape curve, contact location, and contact force can be obtained. Experimental results indicate a maximum shape reconstruction error of 0.3 mm (when the reconstruction length is 90 mm) and a force estimation error of 0.02 N (RMSE, range 0-0.4 N). Moreover, a two-finger gripper was developed; shape and tactile sensing during grasping of diverse objects (varies in weight, size, stiffness) and force-controlled grasping are achieved. Utilizing the shape-sensing and contact-event detection capabilities, dimension of the grasped objects can be recognized in real-time. This work provides an effective, highly robust, easy-to-implement, and transformative perception solution for soft bionic fingers and beyond.","PeriodicalId":48685,"journal":{"name":"Soft Robotics","volume":"88 1","pages":"21695172261417888"},"PeriodicalIF":7.9,"publicationDate":"2026-01-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146021744","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Origami structures are lightweight and reconfigurable, creating 3D shapes by folding 2D facets. However, increasing bending stiffness in a 3D shape is challenging because the structure needs to undergo transformation, and the thin facets are easily bent. This problem is especially critical in an angled arm shape, which serves as an element of various configurations. Here, we propose a method that leverages origami transformation, which typically reduces structural stiffness. We combined two layers with the opposite folding motion. This induces interlocking due to opposite movements in the cross-sectional direction during axial bending, resulting in high bending stiffness. Based on this, we developed an arm support device, furniture, and a shelter that remain flat in their normal state but can easily transform into shapes with high load-bearing capacity.
{"title":"Double-Layer Self-Locking Origami Based on Opposite Folding Motion.","authors":"Jae-Kyeong Kim,Se Hyeok Ahn,Sun-Pill Jung,Jemoon Kim,Deuk-Gyeom Hwang,Haseon Kim,Seung-Won Kim,Dae-Young Lee,Jinkyu Yang,Kyu-Jin Cho","doi":"10.1177/21695172251401337","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/21695172251401337","url":null,"abstract":"Origami structures are lightweight and reconfigurable, creating 3D shapes by folding 2D facets. However, increasing bending stiffness in a 3D shape is challenging because the structure needs to undergo transformation, and the thin facets are easily bent. This problem is especially critical in an angled arm shape, which serves as an element of various configurations. Here, we propose a method that leverages origami transformation, which typically reduces structural stiffness. We combined two layers with the opposite folding motion. This induces interlocking due to opposite movements in the cross-sectional direction during axial bending, resulting in high bending stiffness. Based on this, we developed an arm support device, furniture, and a shelter that remain flat in their normal state but can easily transform into shapes with high load-bearing capacity.","PeriodicalId":48685,"journal":{"name":"Soft Robotics","volume":"27 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":7.9,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145663915","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Human joint motion monitoring is essential for disease diagnosis, rehabilitation, health management, and enhancing human-computer interaction experiences. This work presents the development and validation of a flexible segmented assemblable fiber optic sensor (FSAFOS) specifically designed for human multi-joint monitoring. The FSAFOS is composed of miniature LEDs, segmented polymethyl methacrylate optical fibers, and photoconductive chips encapsulated in a flexible cladding, allowing it to accurately sense joint bending angles while maintaining high flexibility and comfort. The modularity of the FSAFOS enables rapid customization and assembly through magnetic connectors, adapting to various joint configurations and sizes. Experimental results demonstrate that the sensor exhibits good stability, low hysteresis (<5%), and high linearity (R2 = 0.996) in measuring bending angles. In validation experiments, the FSAFOS accurately measured finger joint and spinal bending angles with errors less than 1.85° compared to ground truth. The FSAFOS represents a significant advancement in the field of biomechanical monitoring, offering potential applications in personalized posture monitoring and human-machine interfaces. The study protocol was approved by the Medical Ethics Committee from the Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, China (reference number: [2022]098).
{"title":"Flexible Segmented Assemblable Fiber Optic Sensor for Human Multi-Joint Monitoring.","authors":"Yuxin Peng,Liang Zhong,Xi Zhu,Xian Song,Keshuai Yang,Jianfeng Li,Zhihao Zhou,Zhichuan Tang","doi":"10.1177/21695172251400478","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/21695172251400478","url":null,"abstract":"Human joint motion monitoring is essential for disease diagnosis, rehabilitation, health management, and enhancing human-computer interaction experiences. This work presents the development and validation of a flexible segmented assemblable fiber optic sensor (FSAFOS) specifically designed for human multi-joint monitoring. The FSAFOS is composed of miniature LEDs, segmented polymethyl methacrylate optical fibers, and photoconductive chips encapsulated in a flexible cladding, allowing it to accurately sense joint bending angles while maintaining high flexibility and comfort. The modularity of the FSAFOS enables rapid customization and assembly through magnetic connectors, adapting to various joint configurations and sizes. Experimental results demonstrate that the sensor exhibits good stability, low hysteresis (<5%), and high linearity (R2 = 0.996) in measuring bending angles. In validation experiments, the FSAFOS accurately measured finger joint and spinal bending angles with errors less than 1.85° compared to ground truth. The FSAFOS represents a significant advancement in the field of biomechanical monitoring, offering potential applications in personalized posture monitoring and human-machine interfaces. The study protocol was approved by the Medical Ethics Committee from the Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, China (reference number: [2022]098).","PeriodicalId":48685,"journal":{"name":"Soft Robotics","volume":"34 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":7.9,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145664269","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-01DOI: 10.1177/21695172251401339
Wenbiao Wang,Yan Lin,Jinyuan Xu,Pinxi Chen,Guanjun Bao
Soft robot hands perform adaptive grasping stability by flexibly conforming to target geometries without damaging the target. While most improvements focus on macro-scale structural optimization, surface microstructures will also play a crucial role in grasp performance. Inspired by the filiform papillae (FP) on feline tongues, which are barbed structures characterized by high density and moderate deformability that facilitate secure contacting, a feline tongue-inspired filiform microstructure (FTFM) is proposed and integrated into soft robotic fingertips to achieve high grasping ability. By analyzing the morphology and spatial arrangement of FPs, we designed two layout strategies: arc-shaped and cross-shaped arrays. Finite element simulations in Abaqus revealed that the arc arrangement stores 20-25% more elastic strain energy and exhibits more uniform stress distribution, indicating superior elastic adaptability. Grasping experiments under dry contact conditions further validated the effectiveness of FTFM. Compared to conventional smooth-surfaced soft robotic hand (SRH), the developed FTFM-enhanced fingertips improved grasping force by 20-35% as the surface roughness of the object decreased. These results demonstrate that FTFM significantly improves contact friction and adaptive conformity by increasing the number of effective contact points and local deformation. This study provides a novel and scalable strategy for enhancing the performance of soft robotic grippers through bioinspired microstructure design.
{"title":"Feline Tongue-Inspired Filiform Microstructure Improving Grasp Performance of Soft Robotic Hands.","authors":"Wenbiao Wang,Yan Lin,Jinyuan Xu,Pinxi Chen,Guanjun Bao","doi":"10.1177/21695172251401339","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/21695172251401339","url":null,"abstract":"Soft robot hands perform adaptive grasping stability by flexibly conforming to target geometries without damaging the target. While most improvements focus on macro-scale structural optimization, surface microstructures will also play a crucial role in grasp performance. Inspired by the filiform papillae (FP) on feline tongues, which are barbed structures characterized by high density and moderate deformability that facilitate secure contacting, a feline tongue-inspired filiform microstructure (FTFM) is proposed and integrated into soft robotic fingertips to achieve high grasping ability. By analyzing the morphology and spatial arrangement of FPs, we designed two layout strategies: arc-shaped and cross-shaped arrays. Finite element simulations in Abaqus revealed that the arc arrangement stores 20-25% more elastic strain energy and exhibits more uniform stress distribution, indicating superior elastic adaptability. Grasping experiments under dry contact conditions further validated the effectiveness of FTFM. Compared to conventional smooth-surfaced soft robotic hand (SRH), the developed FTFM-enhanced fingertips improved grasping force by 20-35% as the surface roughness of the object decreased. These results demonstrate that FTFM significantly improves contact friction and adaptive conformity by increasing the number of effective contact points and local deformation. This study provides a novel and scalable strategy for enhancing the performance of soft robotic grippers through bioinspired microstructure design.","PeriodicalId":48685,"journal":{"name":"Soft Robotics","volume":"11 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":7.9,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145663914","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-11-24DOI: 10.1177/21695172251395478
Dimuthu D K Arachchige,Dulanjana M Perera,Umer Huzaifa,Iyad Kanj,Isuru S Godage
Snakes possess an extraordinary ability to traverse diverse terrains, thanks to their continuous bending and distributed surface contacts. While robotic snakes have replicated some of these locomotion capabilities, most existing designs rely on a rigid, articulated approach. However, the discrete nature of rigid-bodied construction poses challenges in maintaining a uniform distributed force, particularly when traversing curved surfaces. This article explores the locomotion potential of soft robotic snakes (SRSs) made primarily from soft, elastic materials, focusing on their ability to navigate curved surfaces. We introduce a novel locomotion gait specifically tailored for curved terrain, with parameterized movements to accommodate varying degrees of steepness. Recognizing the critical role of surface grip in locomotion on curved surfaces, we also present a mathematical model to adjust the gripping force exerted by distributed contacts, enhancing stability. Extensive experiments with our SRS prototype validate the effectiveness, viability, and robustness of the proposed locomotion strategies. Our findings pave the way for SRS applications in challenging environments such as cylindrical ducts, pipelines, and confined spaces, where traditional robotic systems may face limitations.
{"title":"Soft Robotic Snake Locomotion on Curved Surfaces.","authors":"Dimuthu D K Arachchige,Dulanjana M Perera,Umer Huzaifa,Iyad Kanj,Isuru S Godage","doi":"10.1177/21695172251395478","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/21695172251395478","url":null,"abstract":"Snakes possess an extraordinary ability to traverse diverse terrains, thanks to their continuous bending and distributed surface contacts. While robotic snakes have replicated some of these locomotion capabilities, most existing designs rely on a rigid, articulated approach. However, the discrete nature of rigid-bodied construction poses challenges in maintaining a uniform distributed force, particularly when traversing curved surfaces. This article explores the locomotion potential of soft robotic snakes (SRSs) made primarily from soft, elastic materials, focusing on their ability to navigate curved surfaces. We introduce a novel locomotion gait specifically tailored for curved terrain, with parameterized movements to accommodate varying degrees of steepness. Recognizing the critical role of surface grip in locomotion on curved surfaces, we also present a mathematical model to adjust the gripping force exerted by distributed contacts, enhancing stability. Extensive experiments with our SRS prototype validate the effectiveness, viability, and robustness of the proposed locomotion strategies. Our findings pave the way for SRS applications in challenging environments such as cylindrical ducts, pipelines, and confined spaces, where traditional robotic systems may face limitations.","PeriodicalId":48685,"journal":{"name":"Soft Robotics","volume":"38 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":7.9,"publicationDate":"2025-11-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145599921","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-11-18DOI: 10.1177/21695172251394586
Lai Cao,Guobin Lu,Zhengyuan Wang,Bei Peng,Jianing Wu,Stanislav Gorb,Yichuan Wu
Microrobots with multimodal locomotion offer distinct advantages in adapting to complex environments. However, achieving both untethered and controllable crawling and jumping within a centimeter-scale platform remains a significant challenge. Here, we report a fully untethered microrobot inspired by the jumping mechanism of click beetles. The robot measures 3.3 cm in height, weighs 2.6 g, and combines piezoelectric-driven differential actuation for directional crawling with a compact, electrically triggered catapult mechanism for high-performance jumping. The jumping mechanism, based on a heated fuse release, enables the robot to leap up to 29 times its body height (95 cm), while the isolated catapult design achieves a record-setting jump height of 230 times the body length, outperforming previously reported untethered systems. Under wireless control, the robot demonstrates smooth crawling-jumping-crawling transitions to overcome obstacles in unconstructed terrain. This research advances the design of centimeter-scale microrobots and highlights the potential of integrated multimodal locomotion in untethered microrobots.
{"title":"A 2.6-g Untethered Microrobot with Maneuverable Crawling and High Jumping Performance.","authors":"Lai Cao,Guobin Lu,Zhengyuan Wang,Bei Peng,Jianing Wu,Stanislav Gorb,Yichuan Wu","doi":"10.1177/21695172251394586","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/21695172251394586","url":null,"abstract":"Microrobots with multimodal locomotion offer distinct advantages in adapting to complex environments. However, achieving both untethered and controllable crawling and jumping within a centimeter-scale platform remains a significant challenge. Here, we report a fully untethered microrobot inspired by the jumping mechanism of click beetles. The robot measures 3.3 cm in height, weighs 2.6 g, and combines piezoelectric-driven differential actuation for directional crawling with a compact, electrically triggered catapult mechanism for high-performance jumping. The jumping mechanism, based on a heated fuse release, enables the robot to leap up to 29 times its body height (95 cm), while the isolated catapult design achieves a record-setting jump height of 230 times the body length, outperforming previously reported untethered systems. Under wireless control, the robot demonstrates smooth crawling-jumping-crawling transitions to overcome obstacles in unconstructed terrain. This research advances the design of centimeter-scale microrobots and highlights the potential of integrated multimodal locomotion in untethered microrobots.","PeriodicalId":48685,"journal":{"name":"Soft Robotics","volume":"157 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":7.9,"publicationDate":"2025-11-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145545051","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-11-18DOI: 10.1177/21695172251394596
Mutsuki Hagiwara,Wataru Hijikata
Bioactuators consisting of cultured skeletal muscle and an artificial lattice have not only the same flexibility as soft actuators but also the same biological functions; both are glucose-driven and capable of self-growth and self-repair. These features are expected to lead to the creation of applications based on new principles and technologies, such as powered exoskeletons that self-grow in accordance with the user's muscle mass and power generation systems for implantable medical devices that can be used semi-permanently by converting glucose into electricity. For engineering applications of bioactuators, it is desirable to precisely control the contraction force. Hence, in this study, we propose a method for precise control using muscle contraction models that represent the contraction mechanism of skeletal muscles in response to electrical stimulation. First, we propose a calculation method for the stimulation voltage using an optimization algorithm that uses the sum of the squares of the differences between the reference and contraction forces derived from the muscle contraction models as the evaluation function for an arbitrary reference. In addition to the model-based control, a feedback control system was developed to reduce the error against the reference force. A bioactuator driven by extracted toad muscle was fabricated, and the performance of the proposed control method was evaluated experimentally. This method was shown to be capable of precisely controlling the muscle contraction force. In addition, feedback control can reduce errors when muscle contraction characteristics change. These results indicate that bioactuators can be controlled in the same manner as existing industrial actuators.
{"title":"Development of a Contraction Force Control Method for Bioactuators Using a Muscle Contraction Model.","authors":"Mutsuki Hagiwara,Wataru Hijikata","doi":"10.1177/21695172251394596","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/21695172251394596","url":null,"abstract":"Bioactuators consisting of cultured skeletal muscle and an artificial lattice have not only the same flexibility as soft actuators but also the same biological functions; both are glucose-driven and capable of self-growth and self-repair. These features are expected to lead to the creation of applications based on new principles and technologies, such as powered exoskeletons that self-grow in accordance with the user's muscle mass and power generation systems for implantable medical devices that can be used semi-permanently by converting glucose into electricity. For engineering applications of bioactuators, it is desirable to precisely control the contraction force. Hence, in this study, we propose a method for precise control using muscle contraction models that represent the contraction mechanism of skeletal muscles in response to electrical stimulation. First, we propose a calculation method for the stimulation voltage using an optimization algorithm that uses the sum of the squares of the differences between the reference and contraction forces derived from the muscle contraction models as the evaluation function for an arbitrary reference. In addition to the model-based control, a feedback control system was developed to reduce the error against the reference force. A bioactuator driven by extracted toad muscle was fabricated, and the performance of the proposed control method was evaluated experimentally. This method was shown to be capable of precisely controlling the muscle contraction force. In addition, feedback control can reduce errors when muscle contraction characteristics change. These results indicate that bioactuators can be controlled in the same manner as existing industrial actuators.","PeriodicalId":48685,"journal":{"name":"Soft Robotics","volume":"3 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":7.9,"publicationDate":"2025-11-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145545050","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Millimeter cable-driven continuum robots exhibit shape conforming, dexterous manipulation capabilities in constrained environments. They are increasingly used for narrow space and endoluminal intervention. For delicate manipulation, quantifying the force interaction between the robot and its surrounding environment is important for both shape adjustment and avoiding damages to luminal structures. In this work, we propose a real-time, whole-body contact estimation framework for small-scale continuum robots, based on actuation fibers and model-informed neural networks. The physical relationship among external body contact, internal actuation, and shape sensing of the continuum robot is formulated based on rod theory, and body contact estimation is treated as an inverse problem given the actuation tension profile and robot shape as inputs. The contact position and force are estimated using a neural network, and a generative adversarial network-based data augmentation strategy is proposed to reduce the need for large amounts of real data from the continuum robot under external forces. In addition, an automatic data acquisition platform is developed to efficiently collect the small amount of required data. Experiments with notched continuum robots were conducted to demonstrate the general applicability and accuracy of the proposed approach. The results show that the mean estimation errors for the three-dimensional (3D) contact position and contact force magnitude are 1.7 mm (2.3%) and 8.7 mN (5.8%), respectively, with an estimation frequency of 25 Hz. It paves the way for embodied integration using multiplexed fibers for the simultaneous actuation and sensing of millimeter-scale continuum robots, enabling their safer operation in confined spaces through machine intelligence.
{"title":"Real-Time Whole-Body Contact Estimation of Continuum Robots Using Multiplexed Fibers for Embodied Actuation and Sensing to Quantify Interactions.","authors":"Zecai Lin,Jingyuan Xia,Zheng Xu,Yun Zou,Cheng Zhou,Jiafan Chen,Lucas Tat-Long Tong,Shaoping Huang,Huanghua Liu,Weidong Chen,Guang-Zhong Yang,Anzhu Gao","doi":"10.1177/21695172251388808","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/21695172251388808","url":null,"abstract":"Millimeter cable-driven continuum robots exhibit shape conforming, dexterous manipulation capabilities in constrained environments. They are increasingly used for narrow space and endoluminal intervention. For delicate manipulation, quantifying the force interaction between the robot and its surrounding environment is important for both shape adjustment and avoiding damages to luminal structures. In this work, we propose a real-time, whole-body contact estimation framework for small-scale continuum robots, based on actuation fibers and model-informed neural networks. The physical relationship among external body contact, internal actuation, and shape sensing of the continuum robot is formulated based on rod theory, and body contact estimation is treated as an inverse problem given the actuation tension profile and robot shape as inputs. The contact position and force are estimated using a neural network, and a generative adversarial network-based data augmentation strategy is proposed to reduce the need for large amounts of real data from the continuum robot under external forces. In addition, an automatic data acquisition platform is developed to efficiently collect the small amount of required data. Experiments with notched continuum robots were conducted to demonstrate the general applicability and accuracy of the proposed approach. The results show that the mean estimation errors for the three-dimensional (3D) contact position and contact force magnitude are 1.7 mm (2.3%) and 8.7 mN (5.8%), respectively, with an estimation frequency of 25 Hz. It paves the way for embodied integration using multiplexed fibers for the simultaneous actuation and sensing of millimeter-scale continuum robots, enabling their safer operation in confined spaces through machine intelligence.","PeriodicalId":48685,"journal":{"name":"Soft Robotics","volume":"39 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":7.9,"publicationDate":"2025-11-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145462132","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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