This review examined the mutagenicity and genotoxicity associated with exposure to outdoor air pollutants in Brazil. A search was performed on the Web of Science database using a combination of keywords that resulted in 134 articles. After applying exclusion criteria, a total of 75 articles were obtained. The articles were classified into three categories: (1) studies with plants and animals, (2) in vitro studies, and (3) human biomonitoring. The investigations were conducted in 11 of 27 Brazilian states with the highest prevalence in the southeast and south regions. Only 5 investigations focused on the effects of burning biomass on the quality of outdoor air. Plants, especially Tradescantia pallida, were the main air pollution biomonitoring tool. When available, a significant association between levels of air pollutants and genetic damage was described. Among the in vitro studies, Salmonella/microsome is the most used test to evaluate mutagenesis of outdoor air in Brazil (n = 26). Human biomonitoring studies were the least frequent category (n = 18). Most of the investigations utilized micronucleus bioassay, in oral mucosa cells (n = 15) and lymphocytes (n = 5), and the comet assay (n = 6). The analysis in this study points to the existence of gaps in genotoxicity studies and our findings indicate that future studies need to address the variety of potential sources of pollution existing in Brazil. In addition to extent of the impacts, consideration should be given to the enormous Brazilian biodiversity, as well as the determination of the role of socioeconomic inequality of the population in the observed outcomes.
Occupational exposure as a firefighter has recently been classified as a carcinogen to humans by International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Biomonitoring has been increasingly used to characterize exposure of firefighting forces to contaminants. However, available data are dispersed and information on the most relevant and promising biomarkers in this context of firefighting is missing. This review presents a comprehensive summary and critical appraisal of existing biomarkers of exposure including volatile organic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, several other persistent other organic pollutants as well as heavy metals and metalloids detected in biological fluids of firefighters attending different fire scenarios. Urine was the most characterized matrix, followed by blood. Firefighters exhaled breath and saliva were poorly evaluated. Overall, biological levels of compounds were predominantly increased in firefighters after participation in firefighting activities. Biomonitoring studies combining different biomarkers of exposure and of effect are currently limited but exploratory findings are of high interest. However, biomonitoring still has some unresolved major limitations since reference or recommended values are not yet established for most biomarkers. In addition, half-lives values for most of the biomarkers have thus far not been defined, which significantly hampers the design of studies. These limitations need to be tackled urgently to improve risk assessment and support implementation of better more effective preventive strategies.
Several studies have been conducted to address the potential adverse health risks attributed to exposure to nanoscale materials. While in vivo studies are fundamental for identifying the relationship between dose and occurrence of adverse effects, in vitro model systems provide important information regarding the mechanism(s) of action at the molecular level. With a special focus on exposure to inhaled (nano)particulate material toxicity assessment, this review provides an overview of the available human respiratory models and exposure systems for in vitro testing, advantages, limitations, and existing investigations using models of different complexity. A brief overview of the human respiratory system, pathway and fate of inhaled (nano)particles is also presented.
Trichoderma is a saprophytic fungus that is used worldwide as a biocontrol and biofertilizer agent. Although considered nonpathogenic until recently, reports of human infections produced by members of the Trichoderma genus are increasing. Numerous sources of infection were proposed based upon patient data and phylogenetic analysis, including air, agriculture, and healthcare facilities, but the deficit of knowledge concerning Trichoderma infections makes patient treatment difficult. These issues are compounded by isolates that present profiles which exhibit high minimum inhibitory concentration values to available antifungal drugs. The aim of this review is to present the global distribution and sources of infections that affect both immunocompetent and immunocompromised hosts, clinical features, therapeutic strategies that are used to treat patients, as well as highlighting treatments with the best responses. In addition, the antifungal susceptibility profiles of Trichoderma isolates that have emerged in recent decades were examined and which antifungal drugs need to be further evaluated as potential candidates to treat Trichoderma infections are also indicated.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are legacy pollutants of considerable public health concern. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons arise from natural and anthropogenic sources and are ubiquitously present in the environment. Several PAHs are highly toxic to humans with associated carcinogenic and mutagenic properties. Further, more severe harmful effects on human- and environmental health have been attributed to the presence of high molecular weight (HMW) PAHs, that is PAHs with molecular mass greater than 300 Da. However, more research has been conducted using low molecular weight (LMW) PAHs). In addition, no HMW PAHs are on the priority pollutants list of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), which is limited to only 16 PAHs. However, limited analytical methodologies for separating and determining HMW PAHs and their potential isomers and lack of readily available commercial standards make research with these compounds challenging. Since most of the PAH kinetic data originate from animal studies, our understanding of the effects of PAHs on humans is still minimal. In addition, current knowledge of toxic effects after exposure to PAHs may be underrepresented since most investigations focused on exposure to a single PAH. Currently, information on PAH mixtures is limited. Thus, this review aims to critically assess the current knowledge of PAH chemical properties, their kinetic disposition, and toxicity to humans. Further, future research needs to improve and provide the missing information and minimize PAH exposure to humans.
The integration of nanomaterials (NMs) into an ever-expanding number of daily used products has proven to be highly desirable in numerous industries and applications. Unfortunately, the same "nano" specific physicochemical properties, which make these materials attractive, may also contribute to hazards for individuals exposed to these materials. In 2021, it was estimated that 7 out of 10 deaths globally were accredited to chronic diseases, such as chronic liver disease, asthma, and cardiovascular-related illnesses. Crucially, it is also understood that a significant proportion of global populace numbering in the billions are currently living with a range of chronic undiagnosed health conditions. Due to the significant number of individuals affected, it is important that people suffering from chronic disease also be considered and incorporated in NM hazard assessment strategies. This review examined and analyzed the literature that focused on NM-induced adverse health effects in models which are representative of individuals exhibiting pre-existing medical conditions with focus on the pulmonary, cardiovascular, hepatic, gastrointestinal, and central nervous systems. The overall objective of this review was to outline available data, highlighting the important role of pre-existing disease in NM-induced toxicity with the aim of establishing a weight of evidence approach to inform the public on the potential hazards posed by NMs in both healthy and compromised persons in general population.
The complex, variable mixtures present in fine particulate matter (PM2.5) have been well established, and associations between chemical constituents and human health are expanding. In the past decade, there has been an increase in PM2.5 toxicology studies that include chemical analysis of samples. This investigation is a crucial component for identifying the causal constituents for observed adverse health effects following exposure to PM2.5. In this review, investigations of PM2.5 that used both in vivo models were explored and chemical analysis with a focus on respiratory, cardiovascular, central nervous system, reproductive, and developmental toxicity was examined to determine if chemical constituents were considered in the interpretation of the toxicity findings. Comparisons between model systems, PM2.5 characteristics, endpoints, and results were made. A vast majority of studies observed adverse effects in vivo following exposure to PM2.5. While limited, investigations that explored connections between chemical components and measured endpoints noted significant associations between biological measurements and a variety of PM2.5 constituents including elements, ions, and organic/elemental carbon, indicating the need for such analysis. Current limitations in available data, including relatively scarce statistical comparisons between collected toxicity and chemical datasets, are provided. Future progress in this field in combination with epidemiologic research examining chemical composition may support regulatory standards of PM2.5 to protect human health.
Microplastics (MPs) are contaminants widely distributed in the environment and biota. Previously, most studies focused on identifying and characterizing microplastics in the marine environment, while their impact on freshwater ecosystems remains to be determined. This review summarizes recent findings regarding MPs physiological, immunological, and genetic effects on amphibians based upon the biological relevance of this species as indicators of freshwater pollution. Data demonstrated that MPs contamination may potentially alter various physiological processes in aquatic animals, mainly in the embryonic stages. It is worthwhile noting that adverse effects might be enhanced in synergy with other pollutants. However, amphibians might counteract the effect of MPs and other pollutants through microbiota present both in the intestine and on the skin. In addition, amphibian microbial composition might also be altered by MPs themselves in a manner that leads to unpredicted health consequences in amphibians.
Read-across, an alternative approach for hazard assessment, has been widely adopted when in vivo data are unavailable for chemicals of interest. Read-across is enabled via in silico tools such as quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) modeling. In this study, the current status of structure activity relationship (SAR)-based read-across applications in the Republic of Korea (ROK) was examined considering both chemical risk assessments and chemical registrations from different sectors, including regulatory agencies, industry, and academia. From the regulatory perspective, the Ministry of Environment (MOE) established the Act on Registration and Evaluation of Chemicals (AREC) in 2019 to enable registrants to submit alternative data such as information from read-across instead of in vivo data to support hazard assessment and determine chemical-specific risks. Further, the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (MFDS) began to consider read-across approaches for establishing acceptable intake (AI) limits of impurities occurring during pharmaceutical manufacturing processes under the ICH M7 guideline. Although read-across has its advantages, this approach also has limitations including (1) lack of standardized criteria for regulatory acceptance, (2) inconsistencies in the robustness of scientific evidence, and (3) deficiencies in the objective reliability of read-across data. The application and acceptance rate of read-across may vary among regulatory agencies. Therefore, sufficient data need to be prepared to verify the hypothesis that structural similarities might lead to similarities in properties of substances (between source and target chemicals) prior to adopting a read-across approach. In some cases, additional tests may be required during the registration process to clarify long-term effects on human health or the environment for certain substances that are data deficient. To improve the quality of read-across data for regulatory acceptance, cooperative efforts from regulatory agencies, academia, and industry are needed to minimize limitations of read-across applications.
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