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Influence of filler-reinforced carbon fibers on the frictional properties of composite synchronizer rings 填料增强碳纤维对复合同步环摩擦性能的影响
Qinghua Li, Chunyu Wang, Kai Xiao, Chun-Yang Ma, Shihong Zhang
This paper combines the processing of composite synchronizer ring and carbon fiber cloth pre-preg process to study the friction mechanism after adding filler in carbon fiber cloth of composite synchronizer ring, so as to improve the friction and wear performance of composite synchronizer ring. In order to increase the friction factor and thermal stability of composite synchronizer ring friction material two ways as an entry point, select the friction reducing filler in the good thermal conductivity of copper powder and friction increasing filler in the barite as the experimental filler in this paper. The results show that the friction temperature of the composite synchronizer ring without filler is higher and the wear is bigger, the composite synchronizer ring with barite as the filler is second, and the composite synchronizer ring with copper powder as the filler has the best effect of temperature reduction and wear reduction. In the shift force of 400 N, speed difference of 350 r/min, experimental time of 250 min conditions, adding copper powder to reduce the wear volume of about 10%, the friction coefficient is more stable average value decreased by about 0.02, only reduced by about 5%, which is better than the barite as a filler of 0.045; and from the surface quality of the composite synchronizer ring with copper powder as a filler the surface texture is clear. Still has a good oil storage and drainage capacity, can effectively improve the composite synchronizer ring wear resistance and service life. Barite as filler composite synchronizer ring initial friction coefficient is slightly higher, but the coefficient of friction decreased by about 20%, the composite synchronizer ring scratches and local carbon fiber shedding phenomenon, resulting in irreversible performance degradation.
本文结合复合同步环的加工工艺和碳纤维布预浸工艺,研究在复合同步环碳纤维布中加入填料后的摩擦机理,从而改善复合同步环的摩擦磨损性能。以增加复合同步环摩擦材料的摩擦因数和热稳定性两种途径为切入点,选择减摩填料中导热性能良好的铜粉和增摩填料中的重晶石作为本文的实验填料。结果表明,不含填料的复合同步环摩擦温度较高,磨损较大,以重晶石为填料的复合同步环次之,以铜粉为填料的复合同步环降温减磨效果最好。在换挡力为400 N、转速差为350 r/min、实验时间为250 min的条件下,加入铜粉使磨损量降低约10%,摩擦系数较为稳定平均值降低约0.02,仅降低约5%,优于以重晶石为填料的0.045;而且从表面质量来看,以铜粉为填料的复合同步环表面纹理清晰。还具有良好的储油和泄油能力,能有效提高复合同步环的耐磨性和使用寿命。以重晶石为填料的复合同步环初始摩擦系数略高,但摩擦系数下降了约 20%,复合同步环出现划痕和局部碳纤维脱落现象,造成不可逆的性能下降。
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引用次数: 0
Long-short-time domain torque optimal prediction and allocation method for electric logistics vehicles with electro-hydraulic composite steering system 带电动液压复合转向系统的电动物流车的长短时域扭矩优化预测和分配方法
Weihe Liang, Wanzhong Zhao, Chunyan Wang, Zhongkai Luan
The electro-hydraulic composite steering system can reduce steering energy consumption through cooperative control of electro-hydraulic mechanisms, an inevitable trend for global commercial vehicles and green logistics. However, in cooperative control, the electro-hydraulic coupling characteristics not only lead to an increase in system energy consumption but also cause fluctuations in system speed during electro-hydraulic switching. In response to the above issues, this paper proposes a long-short-time domain steering mode selection and torque optimal allocation strategy that integrates long-time domain steering mode selection and short-time domain torque allocation. In the long-term domain, with steering energy consumption as the optimization indicator, the optimal steering mode is selected through a steering mode selection model based on the CNN-LSTM network to reduce steering energy consumption. In the short time domain, the Holt Winter exponential smoothing and support vector regression methods are combined for torque prediction, and the steering energy consumption and electro-hydraulic switching smoothness indicators are comprehensively considered. The electro-hydraulic torque distribution ratio is dynamically optimized in the rolling time domain to reduce the fluctuation of hydraulic pump speed during electro-hydraulic switching. The simulation and experimental results show that the proposed method can improve the switching smoothness of the electro-hydraulic composite steering system and reduce the system’s overall energy consumption by 54.1%.
电液复合转向系统可通过电液机构的协同控制降低转向能耗,是全球商用车和绿色物流发展的必然趋势。然而,在协同控制中,电液耦合特性不仅会导致系统能耗的增加,还会造成电液切换时系统速度的波动。针对上述问题,本文提出了一种长-短时域转向模式选择和扭矩优化分配策略,将长时域转向模式选择和短时域扭矩分配融为一体。在长期域,以转向能耗为优化指标,通过基于 CNN-LSTM 网络的转向模式选择模型选择最优转向模式,以降低转向能耗。在短时域,结合 Holt Winter 指数平滑法和支持向量回归法进行扭矩预测,综合考虑转向能耗和电液切换平稳性指标。在滚动时域动态优化电液扭矩分配比例,减小电液切换时液压泵转速的波动。仿真和实验结果表明,所提出的方法可以提高电液复合转向系统的切换平顺性,降低系统整体能耗 54.1%。
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引用次数: 0
Autonomous vehicle platoon overtaking at a uniform speed based on improved artificial potential field method 基于改进的人工势场方法的匀速自主排车超车技术
Yan Chen, Liang Su, Yong Zhang, Feng Zhang, G. Gong
Amidst the advancements in autonomous driving technology, platoons composed of autonomous vehicles have garnered significant attention due to their potential to alleviate traffic congestion and enhance transportation capacity. Addressing the issue of slow-moving vehicles obstructing the roadway, this study introduces a consistent overtaking strategy, leveraging an improved artificial potential field (IAPF) method. Through the incorporation of a velocity repulsive force field, a refined obstacle position repulsive force field, and a road boundary repulsive force field, the cumulative resultant force vector experienced by the autonomous vehicle is treated holistically. This approach ensures that the vehicle traverses in the direction of the total resultant force unit vector at a predefined speed. Moreover, the repulsive and attractive force coefficients are determined to guarantee convoy safety and uniform velocity. This research sets forth the architecture of the autonomous vehicle platoon, reconceptualizing overtaking maneuvers as dynamic target-tracking challenges. Throughout the overtaking phase, the obstructive vehicle is chosen either based on specific criteria fulfillment or by designating the lead vehicle's speed to a virtual dynamic target, thus safeguarding the overtaking procedure against potential collisions. Comprehensive simulations, conducted using Matlab and Unreal Engine software platforms, corroborate the efficacy and viability of the IAPF-based consistent speed overtaking strategy. Relative to the conventional APF approach, this method facilitates safe obstacle circumvention in dynamic settings and ensures vehicle velocity remains unaffected by resultant force fluctuations, maintaining consistent speed during overtaking.
随着自动驾驶技术的发展,由自动驾驶车辆组成的车队因其在缓解交通拥堵和提高运输能力方面的潜力而备受关注。针对慢速行驶车辆阻碍道路的问题,本研究利用改进的人工势场(IAPF)方法,引入了一种连贯的超车策略。通过结合速度排斥力场、改进的障碍物位置排斥力场和道路边界排斥力场,对自动驾驶车辆所经历的累积结果力矢量进行了整体处理。这种方法可确保车辆以预定速度沿着总结果力单位向量的方向行驶。此外,还确定了排斥力系数和吸引力系数,以确保车队安全和匀速行驶。这项研究提出了自主车辆排的结构,将超车机动重新概念化为动态目标跟踪挑战。在整个超车阶段,根据特定的标准选择障碍车辆,或将领先车辆的速度指定为虚拟动态目标,从而确保超车过程不会发生潜在碰撞。使用 Matlab 和虚幻引擎软件平台进行的综合模拟证实了基于 IAPF 的一致速度超车策略的有效性和可行性。与传统的 APF 方法相比,这种方法有利于在动态环境中安全绕过障碍物,并确保车辆速度不受随之产生的力波动的影响,从而在超车过程中保持稳定的速度。
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引用次数: 0
Prediction of emission and performance of internal combustion engine via regression deep learning approach 通过回归深度学习方法预测内燃机的排放和性能
Samaneh Soltanalizadeh, Mohammad Reza Haeri Yazdi, Vahid Esfahanian, Mohammad Nejat
Strict environmental laws increase the importance of reducing emissions. While; improving three-way catalyst (TWC) technology can help reduce emission levels, attention should also be given to reducing exhaust gases before they enter the TWC. This can be achieved through the development of engine technology and calibration strategies. By doing so, low-cost TWC can be used, and emissions increase less after catalyst aging. In addition to reducing emissions at the engine-out stage before entering the TWC, it is important to reduce emissions after the TWC during the cold start and engine warm-up phase, known as the TWC light-off period. During this stage, the TWC does not reach optimal working efficiency, which can result in higher emissions. Therefore, to comply with environmental regulations, it is necessary to calculate the reduction of emissions while maintaining optimal engine and vehicle performance. Finding the optimal values of control parameters to reduce fuel consumption and emissions simultaneously makes engine calibration a complex multi-objective optimization problem. To meet calibration requirements, it is essential to accurately identify the nonlinear and multivariable behavior of engines. Thus, this study focuses on empirical engine modeling and developing an emissions model for internal combustion engines in both warm and cold engine conditions through an intelligent identification method. To enhance steady state engine modeling in warm conditions, this study proposes a hybrid MLP+CNN method based on the benefits of regression deep neural network. Additionally, the hybrid MLP+CNN+LSTM method adds a long short-term memory (LSTM) neural network, enabling the model to capture the dynamic behavior of emissions during cold start conditions and under the impact of oxygen storage and the temperature in TWC. The results demonstrate that these approaches significantly improve the accuracy of emission modeling when compared to conventional methods. The results demonstrate that using the deep learning approach and dividing the engine emission modeling into two parts, static in warm conditions and dynamic in cold conditions, significantly improve the accuracy of emission modeling compared to conventional methods. Developed models can be used in the model-based calibration due to their high accuracy in emission prediction as well as predicting Torque, BSFC, and other outputs. By coupling the developed model with optimization techniques, calibration of the engine map and cold start can be performed by considering the emissions, torque, etc., simultaneously.
严格的环保法律增加了减少排放的重要性。虽然改进三元催化器(TWC)技术有助于降低排放水平,但还应注意减少进入三元催化器之前的废气。这可以通过开发发动机技术和标定策略来实现。这样就可以使用低成本的 TWC,并减少催化剂老化后排放物的增加。除了在进入 TWC 之前的发动机熄火阶段减少排放外,在进入 TWC 之后的冷启动和发动机预热阶段(即 TWC 熄火期)减少排放也很重要。在这一阶段,TWC 无法达到最佳工作效率,从而导致排放增加。因此,为了符合环保法规,有必要在保持最佳发动机和车辆性能的同时计算排放量的减少。寻找控制参数的最佳值以同时降低油耗和排放,使得发动机标定成为一个复杂的多目标优化问题。为满足标定要求,必须准确识别发动机的非线性和多变量行为。因此,本研究重点关注发动机的经验建模,并通过智能识别方法建立内燃机在冷暖机工况下的排放模型。为了加强暖机工况下的稳态发动机建模,本研究基于回归深度神经网络的优点,提出了一种混合 MLP+CNN 方法。此外,混合 MLP+CNN+LSTM 方法还增加了一个长短期记忆(LSTM)神经网络,使模型能够捕捉到冷启动条件下以及在氧气储存和 TWC 温度影响下的排放动态行为。结果表明,与传统方法相比,这些方法大大提高了排放建模的准确性。结果表明,与传统方法相比,使用深度学习方法并将发动机排放建模分为两部分(温暖条件下的静态和寒冷条件下的动态),可显著提高排放建模的准确性。由于开发的模型在排放预测以及扭矩、BSFC 和其他输出预测方面具有很高的准确性,因此可用于基于模型的标定。通过将开发的模型与优化技术相结合,可以同时考虑排放、扭矩等因素,对发动机图谱和冷启动进行标定。
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引用次数: 0
Influence of surface activated nanophase Pr6O11 particles on the physio-chemical and tribological characteristics of SAE20W40 automotive lubricant 表面活性纳米相 Pr6O11 粒子对 SAE20W40 汽车润滑油的物理化学和摩擦学特性的影响
T. S. Balaram, K. Muralidharan, Ugs Akhilesh, N. Pranav, P. Akash, R. Vignesh, R. Senthilkumar, A. Saiyathibrahim, Indran Suyambulingam, S. Siengchin
In this study, the formulation of nano lubricants is undertaken through the utilization of SAE20W40 engine oil and surface-activated praseodymium oxide (Pr6O11). An analysis is conducted on the impact of concentration profile (0.1, 0.3, 0.5 wt.%) on various physio-chemical properties, including stability, viscosity, fire and flash point, calorific value, acid value, and iodine value of the nano lubricants. The wear rate and coefficient of friction are determined through the utilization of a pin-on-disc tribometer for all the synthesized nano lubricants. A comprehensive examination on the attributes of the synthesized nano lubricants is presented by means of informative images and graphs obtained from SEM, EDS, TEM, FT-IR, UV-Vis, and DSC. It is revealed that the lubricant oil containing 0.3 wt.% of Pr6O11 demonstrates superior performance when compared to the base lubricant.
本研究利用 SAE20W40 机油和表面活性氧化镨(Pr6O11)配制纳米润滑油。研究分析了浓度曲线(0.1、0.3、0.5 wt.%)对纳米润滑油各种理化性质的影响,包括稳定性、粘度、燃点和闪点、热值、酸值和碘值。所有合成纳米润滑剂的磨损率和摩擦系数都是通过使用针盘摩擦仪测定的。通过 SEM、EDS、TEM、FT-IR、UV-Vis 和 DSC 获得的信息图像和图表,对合成纳米润滑剂的属性进行了全面检查。结果表明,与基础润滑油相比,含有 0.3 wt.% Pr6O11 的润滑油表现出更优越的性能。
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引用次数: 0
Knee room suggestions for passenger vehicles based on Chinese body measurements and knee point polynomial curves 基于中国人体测量和膝点多项式曲线的乘用车膝部空间建议
Xinling Zhang, Hanxue Cao, Bin Jiang, Muchen Ma
The amount of knee room provided for a driver is thoroughly considered during automobile design. An inappropriate design affects not only the driver’s comfort but also the frontal impact score. However, at present, the design standard for a driver’s knee room for the people of China is still lacking, which makes it difficult for engineers to prevent associated problems and can even seriously affect drivers’ comfort. By focusing on the driving postures of the people of China in passenger cars, the spatial curves of drivers’ knee rooms suitable for 95th, 50th and 5th percentiles of the Chinese population are investigated in this study based on polynomial machine learning algorithms. The curves change during driving and are stretched into surfaces, which are known as the limit surfaces of the knee room, to limit the component design around the knee, thereby improving the driver’s comfort. The limit surfaces of the knee rooms studied in this article fill the gap in the non-standardized design of knee rooms for passenger vehicles and are highly valuable in commerce.
在汽车设计过程中,要充分考虑为驾驶员提供的膝部空间。不恰当的设计不仅会影响驾驶员的舒适性,还会影响正面碰撞得分。然而,目前针对中国人的驾驶员膝部空间设计标准还很缺乏,这使得工程师们很难预防相关问题的发生,甚至会严重影响驾驶员的舒适性。本研究以中国人的乘用车驾驶姿势为中心,基于多项式机器学习算法,研究了适合中国人口第 95、50 和 5 百分位数的驾驶员膝部空间曲线。这些曲线在驾驶过程中会发生变化,并被拉伸成曲面,即膝部空间的极限曲面,以限制膝部周围的部件设计,从而提高驾驶员的舒适性。本文研究的膝部空间极限曲面填补了乘用车膝部空间非标准化设计的空白,具有很高的商业价值。
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引用次数: 0
Experimental evaluation of the torsional vibration characteristics of a dual-mass flywheel based on multi-condition and multi-index methods 基于多条件和多指数方法的双质量飞轮扭转振动特性实验评估
Zhengfeng Yan, Hongfei Nie, Shaofei Liu, Bo Zhang, Guanhua Tan
Vehicle ride comfort is significantly influenced by powertrain torsional vibration. A multi-condition and multi-index evaluation method of the torsional vibration of the powertrain is proposed in this paper, which selects different evaluation indices according to the characteristics of different working conditions. First, the torsional vibration excitation source of the powertrain is analyzed. The selected indices are the speed amplitude value obtained with the root mean square value, the vibration dose value, the peak-to-peak value, the vibration isolation rate ([Formula: see text]), and the speed fluctuation attenuation rate ([Formula: see text]). Second, the torsional vibration characteristics of ignition, idle, startup, acceleration, deceleration, and switching from tip-in to tip-out are analyzed, and the torsional vibration evaluation indices of each working condition are determined. Then the torsional characteristics of a dual-mass flywheel (DMF) are tested before and after optimization, and the vehicle is tested according to the selected working conditions. Finally, by removing the trend term in the extracted data, the speed amplitude is obtained to calculate the evaluation indices for each working condition. The test results show that the damping performance is improved after the optimization of the DMF, and the evaluation indices under different working conditions are improved by approximately 7% in general, the magnitude of the indices under each working condition showed the same trend, which verifies the feasibility of the evaluation for the multi-condition and multi-index methods and provides references for evaluating the torsional vibration of the powertrain.
车辆的乘坐舒适性受动力总成扭转振动的影响很大。本文提出了动力总成扭转振动的多工况、多指标评价方法,根据不同工况的特点选择不同的评价指标。首先,分析动力总成的扭转振动激励源。选取的指标有:用均方根值求得的速度振幅值、振动剂量值、峰峰值、隔振率([公式:见正文])和速度波动衰减率([公式:见正文])。其次,分析点火、怠速、启动、加速、减速、从 "尖入 "到 "尖出 "切换时的扭转振动特性,确定各工况的扭转振动评价指标。然后测试优化前后双质量飞轮(DMF)的扭转特性,并根据选定的工况对车辆进行测试。最后,通过去除提取数据中的趋势项,得到速度振幅,从而计算出各工况的评价指数。试验结果表明,DMF 优化后阻尼性能得到改善,不同工况下的评价指数普遍提高了约 7%,且各工况下的指数大小呈相同趋势,验证了多工况、多指数方法评价的可行性,为动力总成扭振评价提供了参考。
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引用次数: 0
Influence of key structure of diesel engine helical intake port on intake stratification 柴油机螺旋进气口关键结构对进气分层的影响
Guangyuan Bao, He Chao, Jiaqiang Li, Xueyuan Liu
In order to control gas stratification in diesel engine cylinders and achieve stratified combustion, an experimental and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) coupled approach was employed. The intake section of the helical intake port was divided into four independent intake zones with equal areas by clockwise division: the upper right zone A, upper left zone B, lower left zone C, and lower right zone D. Each zone was supplied with a tracer gas to study the influence of key structural elements of the helical port on gas stratification characteristics within the cylinder. The results indicate that zone D had the highest intake mass, accounting for 27.3% of the total intake, while zone B had the lowest intake mass at 22.4%. In the combustion chamber, intake from zones A and B formed an upper-rich, lower-lean distribution pattern, while intake from zone C formed an upper-lean, lower-rich distribution pattern. The stratification concentration gradient might be quantitatively described thanks to the application of “density ratio.” Lift increased by 5.6% at a 15° intake port deflection angle because the combustion chamber’s maximum axial density ratio was 0.186 and its maximum swirl ratio was 3.57. Soot generation fell by 12.9% under axial stratification, although NOX generation increased by 4.9%.
为了控制柴油发动机气缸内的气体分层并实现分层燃烧,采用了实验和计算流体动力学(CFD)耦合方法。将螺旋进气口的进气部分按顺时针方向划分为四个面积相等的独立进气区:右上区 A、左上区 B、左下区 C 和右下区 D。结果表明,D 区的进气量最大,占总进气量的 27.3%,而 B 区的进气量最小,占 22.4%。在燃烧室中,来自 A 区和 B 区的进气量形成了上富下贫的分布格局,而来自 C 区的进气量则形成了上贫下富的分布格局。由于采用了 "密度比",可以对分层浓度梯度进行定量描述。由于燃烧室的最大轴向密度比为 0.186,最大漩涡比为 3.57,因此在进气口偏转角为 15° 时,升力增加了 5.6%。在轴向分层条件下,烟尘生成量减少了 12.9%,但氮氧化物生成量增加了 4.9%。
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引用次数: 0
Study on the effect of high-pressure methane jet on lean burn laminar flame 研究高压甲烷射流对贫燃层流火焰的影响
Tao Qiu, Huihui Chen, Yan Lei, Ying Wang, Ao Zhang
High-pressure gas fuel direct injection (HPDI) technology benefits the engine with high efficiency and great output power. During the initial ignition process of the gas fuel jet ignited by the pre-ignition flame, the gas jet interacts with the pre-ignition flame, and causes important effects on the flame propagation and stability. This work aims to investigate the effects of the high-pressure gas fuel (methane) jet on the premixed methane flame with an equivalence ratio of 0.7 in a constant volume bomb (CVB) based on a three-dimensional numerical model. The results indicate that there is a complex interaction between the high-pressure methane jet and the premixed flame. The dominant combustion mode within the CVB changes from the premixed flame surface to the diffusion flame surface, which results in two different combustion behaviors in different regions along the methane jet direction, that is, primary ignition and secondary ignition. The methane jet flame development is divided into three regions, that is, laminar combustion laminar-turbulent combustion, turbulent combustion. Reynolds number of the main region of turbulent combustion ranges within Re = 2300–6000, which means that this flame is a small-scale turbulent flame. These findings contribute to understanding the combustion characteristics under high-pressure direct injection natural gas engine conditions, particularly in lean burn conditions, providing valuable insights for natural gas lean-burn flame stability.
高压气体燃料直喷(HPDI)技术使发动机效率高、输出功率大。在预点火火焰点燃气体燃料射流的初始点火过程中,气体射流与预点火火焰相互作用,对火焰的传播和稳定性产生重要影响。这项工作旨在基于三维数值模型,研究高压气体燃料(甲烷)射流对等效比为 0.7 的恒定体积炸弹(CVB)中预混合甲烷火焰的影响。结果表明,高压甲烷射流与预混合火焰之间存在复杂的相互作用。CVB 内的主导燃烧模式由预混合火焰面转变为扩散火焰面,从而在甲烷射流方向的不同区域产生了两种不同的燃烧行为,即一次点火和二次点火。甲烷喷射火焰的发展分为三个区域,即层流燃烧、层流-湍流燃烧、湍流燃烧。湍流燃烧主要区域的雷诺数在 Re = 2300-6000 范围内,这意味着该火焰属于小尺度湍流火焰。这些发现有助于理解高压直喷天然气发动机工况下的燃烧特性,尤其是贫燃工况下的燃烧特性,为天然气贫燃火焰的稳定性提供了有价值的见解。
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引用次数: 0
Design of a direct current controller for magnetorheological semi-active suspensions with nonlinear constraints 为具有非线性约束的磁流变半主动悬架设计直流控制器
Xiaotian Shi, He Li, Ke Fu
In the application of magnetorheological (MR) semi-active suspensions, the target damping force calculated using the controller must be realised by an MR damper. This requires the target damping force first to be converted into a corresponding drive current. However, owing to the nonlinearity of MR dampers, the drive current based on the target damping force cannot be accurately tracked, which could worsen the control performance. To avoid this situation, this study proposed a gain scheduling control method based on a linear parameter-varying (LPV) model of MR semi-active suspensions. First, based on the nonlinear model of MR semi-active suspension, an LPV model with constraints used as varying parameters was established using convex decomposition. Then, an LPV controller was designed with a convex polytope structure using the linear matrix inequality technique. A system with this controller can achieve H∞ performance. The simulation results showed that the drive current directly obtained with the LPV controller can better utilise the effective region of the MR damper. Consequently, this controller yields smoother current control quantities and lower computational costs while guaranteeing the performance.
在磁流变(MR)半主动悬挂系统的应用中,使用控制器计算出的目标阻尼力必须由磁流变阻尼器来实现。这就要求首先将目标阻尼力转换为相应的驱动电流。然而,由于 MR 阻尼器的非线性,基于目标阻尼力的驱动电流无法精确跟踪,这可能会降低控制性能。为了避免这种情况,本研究提出了一种基于 MR 半主动悬架线性参数变化(LPV)模型的增益调度控制方法。首先,基于 MR 半主动悬架的非线性模型,利用凸分解建立了一个带约束条件的 LPV 模型。然后,利用线性矩阵不等式技术设计了一个具有凸多胞结构的 LPV 控制器。使用该控制器的系统可以达到 H∞ 性能。仿真结果表明,利用 LPV 控制器直接获得的驱动电流能更好地利用磁共振阻尼器的有效区域。因此,该控制器在保证性能的同时,能获得更平滑的电流控制量和更低的计算成本。
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引用次数: 0
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Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering
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