Human smuggling is a form of illegal trade in which the commodity is an assisted illegal entry into a country. While this is hardly a new phenomenon, evidence points to increased involvement of smugglers in facilitating these journeys. This has been linked to the hardening of entry policies in developed countries. Smuggling markets tend to possess low barriers to entry and remarkably similar organizational arrangements in all the main smuggling routes in the world: no monopolies and small, localized, and rudimentary hierarchies. There are clear separations between migrant smugglers and their protectors and between migrant smugglers and drug traffickers. The limited empirical evidence suggests that, rather than being involved in other unrelated criminal activities, smugglers often run small-scale legitimate businesses. There is very little evidence of direct involvement of traditional mafia-like organizations. Finally, smugglers, often in competition to attract migrants, have developed diverse strategies to foster transactions, including investing in their reputations, offering warranties, and bringing in third-party escrow services. Recent developments in information technology have facilitated use of social media and the internet.
{"title":"Human Smuggling: Structure and Mechanisms","authors":"Paolo Campana","doi":"10.1086/708663","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/708663","url":null,"abstract":"Human smuggling is a form of illegal trade in which the commodity is an assisted illegal entry into a country. While this is hardly a new phenomenon, evidence points to increased involvement of smugglers in facilitating these journeys. This has been linked to the hardening of entry policies in developed countries. Smuggling markets tend to possess low barriers to entry and remarkably similar organizational arrangements in all the main smuggling routes in the world: no monopolies and small, localized, and rudimentary hierarchies. There are clear separations between migrant smugglers and their protectors and between migrant smugglers and drug traffickers. The limited empirical evidence suggests that, rather than being involved in other unrelated criminal activities, smugglers often run small-scale legitimate businesses. There is very little evidence of direct involvement of traditional mafia-like organizations. Finally, smugglers, often in competition to attract migrants, have developed diverse strategies to foster transactions, including investing in their reputations, offering warranties, and bringing in third-party escrow services. Recent developments in information technology have facilitated use of social media and the internet.","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"49 1","pages":"471 - 519"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/708663","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44354712","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The involvement of women in organized criminal activities such as street gangs, mafias, and illegal transnational markets, including human trafficking, human smuggling, and drug trafficking, is an important but understudied subject. Gendered studies and feminist theories can improve current knowledge and provide important new insights. They can enhance understanding of women’s roles, behavior, motivations, and life stories in all forms of organized crime and challenge traditional and established ideas about victims, perpetrators, violence, and agency. Women, in all those settings, occupy both passive, subordinate roles and more active, powerful ones. However, ideas that greater emancipation, labor force participation, and formal equality of women in our time have fundamentally affected women’s involvement in organized crime have not been validated. Borders between victims and perpetrators are often blurred. More research is needed on the effects of globalization and technological change, on the salience of conceptions of masculinity in relation to organized crime, and on conceptualization of violence in women’s personal lives and criminal actions.
{"title":"Women in Organized Crime","authors":"Rossella Selmini","doi":"10.1086/708622","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/708622","url":null,"abstract":"The involvement of women in organized criminal activities such as street gangs, mafias, and illegal transnational markets, including human trafficking, human smuggling, and drug trafficking, is an important but understudied subject. Gendered studies and feminist theories can improve current knowledge and provide important new insights. They can enhance understanding of women’s roles, behavior, motivations, and life stories in all forms of organized crime and challenge traditional and established ideas about victims, perpetrators, violence, and agency. Women, in all those settings, occupy both passive, subordinate roles and more active, powerful ones. However, ideas that greater emancipation, labor force participation, and formal equality of women in our time have fundamentally affected women’s involvement in organized crime have not been validated. Borders between victims and perpetrators are often blurred. More research is needed on the effects of globalization and technological change, on the salience of conceptions of masculinity in relation to organized crime, and on conceptualization of violence in women’s personal lives and criminal actions.","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"49 1","pages":"339 - 383"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/708622","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42038068","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Outlaw motorcycle clubs have spread across the globe. Their members have been associated with serious crime, and law enforcement often perceives them to be a form of organized crime. Outlaw bikers are disproportionately engaged in crime, but the role of the club itself in these crimes remains unclear. Three scenarios describe possible relations between clubs and the crimes of their members. In the “bad apple” scenario, members individually engage in crime; club membership may offer advantages in enabling and facilitating offending. In the “club within a club” scenario, members engage in crimes separate from the club, but because of the number of members involved, including high-ranking members, the club itself appears to be taking part. The club can be said to function as a criminal organization only when the formal organizational chain of command takes part in organization of the crime, lower level members regard senior members’ leadership in the crime as legitimate, and the crime is generally understood as “club business.” All three scenarios may play out simultaneously within one club with regard to different crimes.
{"title":"Outlaw Motorcycle Clubs and Organized Crime","authors":"K. Lampe, A. Blokland","doi":"10.1086/708926","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/708926","url":null,"abstract":"Outlaw motorcycle clubs have spread across the globe. Their members have been associated with serious crime, and law enforcement often perceives them to be a form of organized crime. Outlaw bikers are disproportionately engaged in crime, but the role of the club itself in these crimes remains unclear. Three scenarios describe possible relations between clubs and the crimes of their members. In the “bad apple” scenario, members individually engage in crime; club membership may offer advantages in enabling and facilitating offending. In the “club within a club” scenario, members engage in crimes separate from the club, but because of the number of members involved, including high-ranking members, the club itself appears to be taking part. The club can be said to function as a criminal organization only when the formal organizational chain of command takes part in organization of the crime, lower level members regard senior members’ leadership in the crime as legitimate, and the crime is generally understood as “club business.” All three scenarios may play out simultaneously within one club with regard to different crimes.","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"49 1","pages":"521 - 578"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/708926","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46600833","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Widely accepted findings in developmental and life-course criminology cannot be extended to criminal careers of organized crime offenders. While most offenders begin offending at a young age, criminal careers in organized crime are generally characterized by a late onset typically characterized by relatively serious offending. Different patterns exist for different groups, including early starters, adult-onset offenders, and offenders with no previous judicial contacts, but all studies find a significant share of adult-onset offenders. Social relationships, including family, friendship, and work ties, are importantly related to becoming involved in organized crime. Involvement mechanisms are diverse; both conventional and criminal capital are important. Children of organized crime offenders have a high risk of intergenerational continuity of crime. Factors that promote desistance for most offenders, such as employment, sometimes have different meanings for organized crime participants, as some occupations provide criminal opportunities and some work settings foster offender convergence. Widely used concepts such as specialization and desistance are less applicable because of the distinctive nature of organized crime offenses and careers. The most urgent issue for future research is to incorporate the roles of co-offenders into analyses of individual criminal careers.
{"title":"Organized Crime and Criminal Careers","authors":"E. Kleemans, Vere van Koppen","doi":"10.1086/707318","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/707318","url":null,"abstract":"Widely accepted findings in developmental and life-course criminology cannot be extended to criminal careers of organized crime offenders. While most offenders begin offending at a young age, criminal careers in organized crime are generally characterized by a late onset typically characterized by relatively serious offending. Different patterns exist for different groups, including early starters, adult-onset offenders, and offenders with no previous judicial contacts, but all studies find a significant share of adult-onset offenders. Social relationships, including family, friendship, and work ties, are importantly related to becoming involved in organized crime. Involvement mechanisms are diverse; both conventional and criminal capital are important. Children of organized crime offenders have a high risk of intergenerational continuity of crime. Factors that promote desistance for most offenders, such as employment, sometimes have different meanings for organized crime participants, as some occupations provide criminal opportunities and some work settings foster offender convergence. Widely used concepts such as specialization and desistance are less applicable because of the distinctive nature of organized crime offenses and careers. The most urgent issue for future research is to incorporate the roles of co-offenders into analyses of individual criminal careers.","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"49 1","pages":"385 - 423"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/707318","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43128336","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
A network approach helps us better specify and model collaboration among people involved in organized crime. The focus on collaboration raises the boundary specification problem: Where do criminal organizations start, where do they end, and who is involved? Traditional approaches sometimes assume the existence of simple, rigid structures when complexity and fluidity are the norms. A network approach embraces this complexity conceptually and provides methodological guidelines for clarifying boundaries. Boundary specification in organized crime helps solve four puzzles. First, social boundaries: a network approach reduces confusion about social boundaries as criminal entrepreneurs interact with criminals and noncriminals in diverse contexts, only some of them illicit. Second, boundaries of group membership: network data and methods obviate the need for formal membership attributions. Third, ethnic boundaries network analyses reveal that the effective boundaries of criminal organizations are based on social relations, not attributes such as ethnicity. Fourth, recruitment: attending to the larger social environments in which organizations are embedded provides a clearer view of how mechanisms of recruitment cross seemingly rigid boundaries between members and prospective members.
{"title":"Collaboration and Boundaries in Organized Crime: A Network Perspective","authors":"M. Bouchard","doi":"10.1086/708435","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/708435","url":null,"abstract":"A network approach helps us better specify and model collaboration among people involved in organized crime. The focus on collaboration raises the boundary specification problem: Where do criminal organizations start, where do they end, and who is involved? Traditional approaches sometimes assume the existence of simple, rigid structures when complexity and fluidity are the norms. A network approach embraces this complexity conceptually and provides methodological guidelines for clarifying boundaries. Boundary specification in organized crime helps solve four puzzles. First, social boundaries: a network approach reduces confusion about social boundaries as criminal entrepreneurs interact with criminals and noncriminals in diverse contexts, only some of them illicit. Second, boundaries of group membership: network data and methods obviate the need for formal membership attributions. Third, ethnic boundaries network analyses reveal that the effective boundaries of criminal organizations are based on social relations, not attributes such as ethnicity. Fourth, recruitment: attending to the larger social environments in which organizations are embedded provides a clearer view of how mechanisms of recruitment cross seemingly rigid boundaries between members and prospective members.","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"49 1","pages":"425 - 469"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/708435","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44994563","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Organized crime, a fuzzy concept, has been defined in many different, sometimes contradictory ways. Five sets of mafia organizations have for decades been considered the core of organized crime: the American Cosa Nostra, the Italian Cosa Nostra and ‘Ndrangheta, Chinese triads, and Japanese yakuza. These organizations—mafias for short—share seven typifying characteristics: longevity and thus premodern roots and, with rare exceptions, male-only membership; large size; a formalized and complex internal structure; an elaborate cultural apparatus meant to generate lifelong commitment, new identity, and fictive kinship ties; multifunctionality; the goal of political dominion and capacity to provide governance services; and long-standing popular legitimacy and power-sharing with local state authorities. The first and the last characteristics point to reasons for the mafias’ consolidation and persistence: except for the American Cosa Nostra, all emerged in contexts of state weakness or absence and benefited from willingness of state representatives to acknowledge their power. Reduced willingness of state authorities and communities to accept mafias’ power, coupled with premodern features of their structure and culture, explain a further common trait: with the partial exception of the ‘Ndrangheta, all have experienced considerable decline in recent decades.
{"title":"What Makes Mafias Different?","authors":"L. Paoli","doi":"10.1086/708826","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/708826","url":null,"abstract":"Organized crime, a fuzzy concept, has been defined in many different, sometimes contradictory ways. Five sets of mafia organizations have for decades been considered the core of organized crime: the American Cosa Nostra, the Italian Cosa Nostra and ‘Ndrangheta, Chinese triads, and Japanese yakuza. These organizations—mafias for short—share seven typifying characteristics: longevity and thus premodern roots and, with rare exceptions, male-only membership; large size; a formalized and complex internal structure; an elaborate cultural apparatus meant to generate lifelong commitment, new identity, and fictive kinship ties; multifunctionality; the goal of political dominion and capacity to provide governance services; and long-standing popular legitimacy and power-sharing with local state authorities. The first and the last characteristics point to reasons for the mafias’ consolidation and persistence: except for the American Cosa Nostra, all emerged in contexts of state weakness or absence and benefited from willingness of state representatives to acknowledge their power. Reduced willingness of state authorities and communities to accept mafias’ power, coupled with premodern features of their structure and culture, explain a further common trait: with the partial exception of the ‘Ndrangheta, all have experienced considerable decline in recent decades.","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"49 1","pages":"141 - 222"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/708826","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44562986","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Many policy makers and some academics believe that mafias move easily between countries and with little difficulty quickly become deeply rooted. The reality is more complicated. Mafiosi often move away from their home territories because they are forced to do so rather than because they relocate for strategic reasons; that kind of transplantation abroad tends to be unsuccessful. Whether transplantation succeeds depends on the presence of mafiosi and local factors, such as whether markets, construction, or illegal drugs are booming and poorly regulated. Under some conditions, transplantation results in wholesale separation between the original organization and the outpost. Mafiosi abroad often neither plan nor hope to achieve the kinds of control of territories, industries, and markets they exercise at home but to buy or sell illegal commodities, thereby engaging in a process of functional diversification.
{"title":"How Mafias Migrate: Transplantation, Functional Diversification, and Separation","authors":"Federico Varese","doi":"10.1086/708870","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/708870","url":null,"abstract":"Many policy makers and some academics believe that mafias move easily between countries and with little difficulty quickly become deeply rooted. The reality is more complicated. Mafiosi often move away from their home territories because they are forced to do so rather than because they relocate for strategic reasons; that kind of transplantation abroad tends to be unsuccessful. Whether transplantation succeeds depends on the presence of mafiosi and local factors, such as whether markets, construction, or illegal drugs are booming and poorly regulated. Under some conditions, transplantation results in wholesale separation between the original organization and the outpost. Mafiosi abroad often neither plan nor hope to achieve the kinds of control of territories, industries, and markets they exercise at home but to buy or sell illegal commodities, thereby engaging in a process of functional diversification.","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"49 1","pages":"289 - 337"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/708870","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42720823","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Index","authors":"","doi":"10.1086/703453","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/703453","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/703453","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44361657","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
As the United States became notorious for mass incarceration, California received outsized attention. Not so much for the sheer volume of California imprisonment but because of its chaotic operation. Populist political mood swings led to Eighth Amendment violations that caused a federal court to declare the whole system unconstitutional, a decision ultimately upheld by the US Supreme Court in Brown v. Plata, 563 U.S. 493 (2011). The state responded with innovations commonly referred to as realignment, which include a dramatic devolution of incarcerative power from state to county, among other major changes. Disaster has been avoided, thanks to clever low-level and low-visibility workings of legal and political mechanisms to control populist democracy. But the DNA of California’s mode of governing cautions that nothing remains stable without foundational reform.
当美国因大规模监禁而臭名昭著时，加州受到了极大的关注。不是因为加州监狱的数量，而是因为其混乱的运作。民粹主义政治情绪的波动导致违反第八修正案，导致联邦法院宣布整个制度违宪，这一决定最终由美国最高法院在Brown v. Plata, 563 U.S. 493(2011)中维持。作为回应，该州采取了一些创新措施，通常被称为重新调整，其中包括将监禁权从州大幅下放到县，以及其他重大变化。灾难得以避免，这要归功于控制民粹主义民主的法律和政治机制巧妙的低级别和低可见度运作。但加州治理模式的基因提醒我们，没有根本性的改革，任何事情都不会保持稳定。
{"title":"The Wild West of Sentencing Reform: Lessons from California","authors":"R. Weisberg","doi":"10.1086/701714","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/701714","url":null,"abstract":"As the United States became notorious for mass incarceration, California received outsized attention. Not so much for the sheer volume of California imprisonment but because of its chaotic operation. Populist political mood swings led to Eighth Amendment violations that caused a federal court to declare the whole system unconstitutional, a decision ultimately upheld by the US Supreme Court in Brown v. Plata, 563 U.S. 493 (2011). The state responded with innovations commonly referred to as realignment, which include a dramatic devolution of incarcerative power from state to county, among other major changes. Disaster has been avoided, thanks to clever low-level and low-visibility workings of legal and political mechanisms to control populist democracy. But the DNA of California’s mode of governing cautions that nothing remains stable without foundational reform.","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"48 1","pages":"35 - 77"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/701714","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46304922","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Sentencing guidelines were an exclusively American enterprise until recently. Since 2004, however, other countries have joined in. Contrasting approaches are exemplified by systems developed by the Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines Commission and the Sentencing Council of England and Wales. Minnesota’s guidelines are set out in grids that categorize cases by offense and criminal history. Each cell sets out ranges of sentences that are presumed to be appropriate. The English guidelines are step-by-step decision trees, one for each principal offense category. Each jurisdiction created an approach that fits its sentencing environment. The Minnesota grids are more restrictive and generate high levels of judicial conformity and consistency. The English guidelines allow greater discretion, possibly at the cost of consistency. However, the English approach provides ampler guidance on use of different dispositions, sentencing of multiple crimes, appropriate reductions to reflect guilty pleas, and other subjects. Neither the Minnesota Commission nor the English Council has been particularly self-critical. Minnesota’s main grid has changed little since 1980. England’s guidelines have evolved considerably, but the council has ignored calls to play a more active role in controlling the use of custody and hence the size of the prison population.
{"title":"The Evolution of Sentencing Guidelines in Minnesota and England and Wales","authors":"Julian V. Roberts","doi":"10.1086/701797","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/701797","url":null,"abstract":"Sentencing guidelines were an exclusively American enterprise until recently. Since 2004, however, other countries have joined in. Contrasting approaches are exemplified by systems developed by the Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines Commission and the Sentencing Council of England and Wales. Minnesota’s guidelines are set out in grids that categorize cases by offense and criminal history. Each cell sets out ranges of sentences that are presumed to be appropriate. The English guidelines are step-by-step decision trees, one for each principal offense category. Each jurisdiction created an approach that fits its sentencing environment. The Minnesota grids are more restrictive and generate high levels of judicial conformity and consistency. The English guidelines allow greater discretion, possibly at the cost of consistency. However, the English approach provides ampler guidance on use of different dispositions, sentencing of multiple crimes, appropriate reductions to reflect guilty pleas, and other subjects. Neither the Minnesota Commission nor the English Council has been particularly self-critical. Minnesota’s main grid has changed little since 1980. England’s guidelines have evolved considerably, but the council has ignored calls to play a more active role in controlling the use of custody and hence the size of the prison population.","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"48 1","pages":"187 - 253"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/701797","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45757633","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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