Journal of Great Lakes Research最新文献_第3页

Microplastics in freshwater copepods of Lake Baikal

IF 2.4 3区环境科学与生态学 Q3 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Journal of Great Lakes Research

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102495

Pinjia Yang , Rei Yamashita , Hiroshi Ogawa , Natalia G. Sheveleva , Olga G. Penkova , Masumi Yamamuro , Marianne V. Moore

Little is known about the ingestion or retention of microplastic particles (MPs) by freshwater copepods in nature or in the laboratory. Yet copepods dominate zooplankton biomass in large, oligotrophic lakes where they occupy a critical trophic position, shunting energy from the planktonic and microbial food webs to higher trophic levels. We collected pelagic copepods from Lake Baikal, Siberia where the concentration of MPs is high relative to other large lakes with no large, urbanized areas near its shores. We quantified microplastic (MP) ingestion incidence by the copepods and describe the shape, size, color, and polymer composition of ingested MPs. Incidence of MPs was more than 10X higher than that reported for copepods in British Columbia lakes and similar to that for copepods from oceanic sites recognized as hotspots of microplastic contamination. The high incidence value might be due to our detection of the smaller, more abundant MPs which have often gone undetected in other studies. All ingested MPs were either fibers or fragments; mean MP particle size was 65.2±41.9 µm; transparent MPs were most common; and ingested MPs composed of the high-density polymer polyethylene terephthalate (PET) were the most abundant. Our findings emphasize that calanoid copepods are a potential vector for moving MPs into the pelagic food webs of large, oligotrophic lakes and highlight the importance of investigating MP uptake, retention, and effects by freshwater copepods in nature and the laboratory.

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引用次数: 0

Regional variability of resource use, trophic position and habitat coupling within Lake Superior

IF 2.4 3区环境科学与生态学 Q3 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Journal of Great Lakes Research

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102457

M.E. Wegher , A.T. Fisk , T.B. Johnson , M.D. Rennie

Food web characterizations of large lakes have rarely considered spatial variation in resource use or trophic connections among species. This is also true of Lake Superior, the world’s second largest freshwater lake. While instances of habitat coupling in Lake Superior have been documented, the extent to which coupling or resource specialization in this system varies spatially, particularly within a species, remains unknown. To address this, stable isotopes of common fish species and prey were collected and analyzed along a depth gradient at four geographically and bathymetrically distinct regions of Lake Superior; 1099 fish and 60 composite invertebrate samples (separately for zooplankton and benthos) were collected from both deeper regions (Keweenaw and Western Arm) and shallower regions (Nipigon Bay and Whitefish Bay). Benthic and pelagic species of fish and invertebrates were collected to characterize different energy pathways. Within regions and taxa, benthic reliance and trophic position differences across depth strata were large and comparable to those previously observed among species lake wide. Across regions, large within-taxa differences in resource use patterns and trophic position existed at similar depth strata, as well as among taxa. Generally, there was a high reliance on pelagic resources across all fish species with greater benthic resource use observed at medium and deep strata. As expected, higher trophic organisms tended to have greater evidence of benthic-pelagic coupling. Our findings reinforce the need to consider regional variation in resource use and trophic position in large lake systems over broad approaches that can overgeneralize patterns of energy flow.

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引用次数: 0

Vertical distribution of Lake Superior cisco (Coregonus artedi) spawning aggregations and implications for population monitoring 苏必利尔湖矶鳕产卵群的垂直分布及其对种群监测的影响

IF 2.4 3区环境科学与生态学 Q3 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Journal of Great Lakes Research

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102424

Jeremiah S. Shrovnal , Bradley A. Ray , Dray D. Carl , Stephanie L. Shaw , Scott A. Sapper , Christopher A. Zunker , Ross A. Lind

Cisco (Coregonus artedi) support an evolving commercial roe fishery in Wisconsin waters of Lake Superior. To monitor trends in spawning cisco abundance, fishery managers recently began estimating adult biomass and exploitation using fall hydroacoustic surveys, which were combined with gill net surveys to inform apportionments of acoustic data. The gill net survey design consisted of paired top-suspended and bottom-set gill nets, but only the sex ratios from top nets are currently used with the hydroacoustic surveys due to an assumption that cisco in Lake Superior are pelagic spawners. However, the vertical sex distribution of cisco during spawning aggregations has been described as dynamic, with males becoming more bottom-oriented throughout the spawning season. We used multilevel aggregated binomial regressions to: 1) determine if there is bias between top and bottom gill net catches of cisco for either sex and if it changes throughout the spawning season, 2) evaluate how the vertical distribution of males and females may create bias in sex ratios used to estimate exploitation, and 3) explore the effect that maturity (i.e., gonadal development) has on vertical distribution during spawning aggregations. We identified sex-specific bias in vertical catch location that has the potential to bias estimates of sex ratio, and the source of this bias may be attributable to maturity driven changes in behavior. These findings highlight a need for caution when relying on gill nets to apportion cisco sex ratios during spawning aggregations and provide support for a non-pelagic alternative hypothesis of spawning behavior.

在苏必利尔湖的威斯康星水域，矶沧鱼（）支撑着不断发展的商业鱼子渔业。为了监测产卵矶沧鱼的丰度趋势，渔业管理者最近开始利用秋季水声调查估算成鱼生物量和捕捞量，并将其与刺网调查结合起来，为声学数据的分配提供信息。刺网调查设计包括成对的上悬刺网和下沉刺网，但由于假设苏必利尔湖中的思科鱼是中上层产卵者，目前只有上层刺网的性别比例被用于水声调查。然而，矶沧鱼在产卵聚集期间的垂直性别分布被描述为动态的，在整个产卵季节，雄性矶沧鱼更倾向于底层。我们使用多级聚合二叉回归法来1）确定雌雄矶沧鱼的顶部和底部刺网渔获量之间是否存在偏差，以及这种偏差是否会在整个产卵季节发生变化；2）评估雌雄矶沧鱼的垂直分布如何导致用于估算开发量的性别比例出现偏差；3）探索成熟度（即性腺发育）对产卵聚集期间垂直分布的影响。我们发现，垂直捕获位置的性别特异性偏差有可能导致性别比估计值的偏差，而这种偏差的来源可能是成熟度驱动的行为变化。这些发现突出表明，在产卵聚集期间，依靠刺网来分配矶沧鱼性别比例时需要谨慎，并为产卵行为的非深海替代假说提供了支持。

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引用次数: 0

Full year seasonality of benthos in the nearshore of Lake Superior 苏必利尔湖近岸底栖生物的全年季节性

IF 2.4 3区环境科学与生态学 Q3 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Journal of Great Lakes Research

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102314

Kirill Shchapov , Ted Ozersky

Relatively little is known about the full-year dynamics of benthic invertebrates in seasonally-freezing lakes. In this study, we describe the seasonal variability in benthic invertebrate abundance and coarse-level taxonomic composition across five nearshore locations in Lake Superior, with a focus on the winter period. We found that benthos abundances were relatively stable across the year, with similar winter (2294 ± 987 SD ind. m⁻²) and summer densities (2710 ± 1445 SD ind. m⁻²) across all stations. Community composition was also relatively stable across the year at our study stations, with Hexagenia sp., chironomids, and oligochaetes dominating our shallowest station (Duluth Harbor) and oligochaetes, Diporeia sp., and clams (Sphaeriidae) dominating deeper locations. Across all stations, diversity was similar across seasons, with the highest number of taxa observed in the fall (5.4 ± 1.8) and lowest number in the summer (4.5 ± 1.4). We found that the winter-spring period was an important time for the reproduction of the Lake Superior keystone amphipod Diporeia sp. Finally, we show that community structure was more variable across sites than across seasons. This is one of very few studies of winter benthos in the Great Lakes and suggests that benthic invertebrate communities show muted seasonal variability compared to planktonic organisms.

人们对季节性冰冻湖泊中底栖无脊椎动物的全年动态知之甚少。在这项研究中，我们描述了苏必利尔湖五个近岸地点底栖无脊椎动物丰度和粗分类组成的季节性变化，重点是冬季。我们发现，底栖生物丰度在全年中相对稳定，所有站点的冬季密度（2294 ± 987 SD ind. m）和夏季密度（2710 ± 1445 SD ind. m）相似。在我们的研究站位，群落组成在全年中也相对稳定，最浅的站位（德卢斯港）以匙形目、摇蚊和寡毛类为主，而较深的站位则以寡毛类、匙形目和蛤蜊（Sphaeriidae）为主。在所有站点，不同季节的多样性相似，秋季观察到的分类群数量最多（5.4 ± 1.8），夏季最少（4.5 ± 1.4）。我们发现，冬春季节是苏必利尔湖基石片脚类动物繁殖的重要时期。最后，我们发现群落结构在不同地点的变化比在不同季节的变化更大。这是极少数有关五大湖冬季底栖生物的研究之一，表明与浮游生物相比，底栖无脊椎动物群落的季节变化较小。

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引用次数: 0

Using hydrogeologic context and water budgets to evaluate the potential for groundwater contributions to contaminants in Lake Superior

IF 2.4 3区环境科学与生态学 Q3 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Journal of Great Lakes Research

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102402

Martha G. Nielsen , Sherry L. Martin

This study presents a synthesis of the hydrogeology in the U.S. Lake Superior watershed and the contribution of groundwater to the water budget of the U.S. Lake Superior basin. Much of the shoreline of Lake Superior in Minnesota and Michigan is composed of hydrogeologic units contributing very little direct groundwater discharge to the lake. Groundwater in watersheds adjacent to the lake typically flows in short, local flow systems characterized by thin glacial sediments with active groundwater flow in fractured bedrock within the top 60–90 m below land surface. The complex groundwater system in Wisconsin’s Bayfield Peninsula has the largest groundwater reservoir near the lake, characterized by thick sand and gravel glacial deposits and underlying sandstone aquifer. Although these thick sandy glacial deposits are not in direct contact with the lake at the shoreline, groundwater discharge may still be significant via subsurface exposures beyond the shoreline or flow through the underlying sandstone aquifer. Overall, most groundwater in the watershed is contributed as indirect base flow in streams around the lakeshore and comprises about 60 percent of the upland water budget. Direct groundwater flow to the shoreline contributes 2 to 9 percent of the inflow. Identifying possible contamination sources through direct sampling of groundwater would be an inefficient way to detect problems if sources are unknown, particularly for some chemicals of concern such as PFAS, pesticides, PCBs, chloride, and nutrients. Evaluating the chemical characteristics of contamination is also important to consider in evaluating how groundwater may contribute to pollution in Lake Superior.

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引用次数: 0

Hydraulic characteristics of effective sea lamprey barriers

IF 2.4 3区环境科学与生态学 Q3 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Journal of Great Lakes Research

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102489

Kassandra Reynolds , Miki Hondzo , Vaughan Voller , Daniel P. Zielinski

A network of 494 lowermost barriers on tributaries of the Laurentian Great Lakes prevents invasive sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) from accessing upstream spawning habitat and is critical to the success of the sea lamprey control program. The design goal of purpose-built barriers for sea lamprey control at low-head dams was to maintain a minimum vertical separation of 45 cm between the crest and downstream water level and a 15-cm overhanging lip. Due to physical site constraints limiting barrier design height and fluctuating stream water levels, many barriers cannot meet the design criteria. However, some barriers continue to block the passage of the sea lamprey even when the design criteria are not fulfilled. We conducted a physical modeling study of three sea lamprey barriers of varying historical efficacies to understand the hydraulic characteristics of effective barriers better. Results showed that time-averaged and horizontally averaged streamwise velocity, energy dissipation rate, and eddy length scale in the vertical direction strongly correlate with barrier efficacy. We combined the resulting variables into a dimensionless Barrier number that can be used to categorize barrier efficacy. Ineffective barriers generally had higher Barrier numbers than effective barriers. Our experimental investigation suggests that the fluid flow and turbulence conditions near the riverbed are not as crucial to barrier efficacy as those above the riverbed at 50 % of the crest height. Our work improves understanding of how existing barriers block sea lamprey movement, which could aid in the design of future sea lamprey barriers.

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引用次数: 0

Simple linear models of coastal setup and seiching behavior across the Laurentian Great Lakes

IF 2.4 3区环境科学与生态学 Q3 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Journal of Great Lakes Research

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102491

Jay Austin

Storm surges and seiches are two dynamically distinct behaviors of lakes that contribute to coastal sea level fluctuations on short time scales and can have significant societal and ecological impacts. Most of the emphasis in the existing Laurentian Great Lakes literature on storm surges focuses on wind-driven storm surges on Lake Erie, due to their large magnitudes and major population centers at both ends of the lake. On Lake Superior, however, the primary driver of coastal setup is atmospheric pressure gradients, which depress water levels at one end and increase them at the other. Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Ontario are intermediate, and both wind forcing and atmospheric pressure gradients contribute to coastal setup. The primary driver of this difference in response is lake depth, which is explored here using simple linear theory. In addition, lake depth plays an important role in the character of the subsequent seiche response of lakes; in shallow lakes such as Erie, bottom drag can damp out seiching behavior quickly, whereas in deep lakes like Superior, seiches can persist for many oscillations. A survey of large lakes worldwide suggests a wide range of behaviors.

{"title":"Simple linear models of coastal setup and seiching behavior across the Laurentian Great Lakes","authors":"Jay Austin","doi":"10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102491","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102491","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Storm surges and seiches are two dynamically distinct behaviors of lakes that contribute to coastal sea level fluctuations on short time scales and can have significant societal and ecological impacts. Most of the emphasis in the existing Laurentian Great Lakes literature on storm surges focuses on wind-driven storm surges on Lake Erie, due to their large magnitudes and major population centers at both ends of the lake. On Lake Superior, however, the primary driver of coastal setup is atmospheric pressure gradients, which depress water levels at one end and increase them at the other. Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Ontario are intermediate, and both wind forcing and atmospheric pressure gradients contribute to coastal setup. The primary driver of this difference in response is lake depth, which is explored here using simple linear theory. In addition, lake depth plays an important role in the character of the subsequent seiche response of lakes; in shallow lakes such as Erie, bottom drag can damp out seiching behavior quickly, whereas in deep lakes like Superior, seiches can persist for many oscillations. A survey of large lakes worldwide suggests a wide range of behaviors.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54818,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Great Lakes Research","volume":"51 1","pages":"Article 102491"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143129454","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

New tools for a legacy problem: How isotope tracers inform area of concern actions in the St. Louis River in Lake Superior

IF 2.4 3区环境科学与生态学 Q3 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Journal of Great Lakes Research

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102494

Sarah E. Janssen , Joel C. Hoffman , David P. Krabbenhoft

Numerous mercury (Hg) sources can contribute to biological burdens within the Great Lakes, including atmospheric deposition (e.g., precipitation), non-point source land runoff (e.g., watershed), and legacy contamination. Due to these different environmental entry points, it is often difficult to ascertain if legacy Hg contamination contributes to contemporary fish consumption advisories within Areas of Concern (AOCs), as designated by the United States-Canada Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement. In this study, we aimed to assess the contributions of legacy Hg to sediments in nearshore wetland habitats and co-located prey items (dragonfly larvae and yellow perch) within the St. Louis River AOC using Hg stable isotopes. We observed that nearshore sediments had the same Hg source portfolio as previously examined main channel sites. Furthermore, this data confirmed that two major Hg sources were contributing to sediments within nearshore regions of the St. Louis River AOC: legacy and watershed Hg. The contribution of legacy Hg was estimated in biota and demonstrated that up to 64% of the Hg in fish tissue in the lower estuary (St. Louis Bay) was from legacy sources, but that this percentage declined substantially when examining upstream regions of the AOC. These data indicate the influence of legacy Hg to the food web varies spatially within the St. Louis River. We further found that watershed Hg sources are an important Hg contributor to the St. Louis River, which likely applies to other impacted and unimpacted tributaries across the Great Lakes region.

{"title":"New tools for a legacy problem: How isotope tracers inform area of concern actions in the St. Louis River in Lake Superior","authors":"Sarah E. Janssen , Joel C. Hoffman , David P. Krabbenhoft","doi":"10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102494","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102494","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Numerous mercury (Hg) sources can contribute to biological burdens within the Great Lakes, including atmospheric deposition (e.g., precipitation), non-point source land runoff (e.g., watershed), and legacy contamination. Due to these different environmental entry points, it is often difficult to ascertain if legacy Hg contamination contributes to contemporary fish consumption advisories within Areas of Concern (AOCs), as designated by the United States-Canada Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement. In this study, we aimed to assess the contributions of legacy Hg to sediments in nearshore wetland habitats and co-located prey items (dragonfly larvae and yellow perch) within the St. Louis River AOC using Hg stable isotopes. We observed that nearshore sediments had the same Hg source portfolio as previously examined main channel sites. Furthermore, this data confirmed that two major Hg sources were contributing to sediments within nearshore regions of the St. Louis River AOC: legacy and watershed Hg. The contribution of legacy Hg was estimated in biota and demonstrated that up to 64% of the Hg in fish tissue in the lower estuary (St. Louis Bay) was from legacy sources, but that this percentage declined substantially when examining upstream regions of the AOC. These data indicate the influence of legacy Hg to the food web varies spatially within the St. Louis River. We further found that watershed Hg sources are an important Hg contributor to the St. Louis River, which likely applies to other impacted and unimpacted tributaries across the Great Lakes region.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54818,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Great Lakes Research","volume":"51 1","pages":"Article 102494"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143129562","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Historical Upper Great Lakes dataset: Introduction and analyses

IF 2.4 3区环境科学与生态学 Q3 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Journal of Great Lakes Research

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102464

John T. Lehman

The author recently deposited an open access dataset as part of the University of Michigan Deep Blue data archive project. The dataset includes water chemistry, CTD profiles, zooplankton abundances, and zooplankton size frequencies from 601 stations and dates for Lakes Erie, Huron, Michigan and Superior from 1985 to 1997. Data collection was funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation Biological Oceanography Program and by Michigan Sea Grant. This communication illustrates use of selected data from the archive to document sampling variability of various zooplankton taxa over 24-hour time periods as well as vertical spatial overlaps of predators and putative prey.

引用次数: 0

Hydrology, chemistry, and sediment and nutrient loads at the intersection of the Genesee River and Erie Canal: An interbasin transfer

IF 2.4 3区环境科学与生态学 Q3 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Journal of Great Lakes Research

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102488

Lindsay Donahoe, Joseph C. Makarewicz

The Genesee River crosses the Erie Canal before entering Lake Ontario near Rochester, New York. Nutrient, suspended solids, temperature, conductivity, flow, and loading data collected weekly over an entire year near the intersection of the Erie Canal and the Genesee River focused on the question on how the Erie Canal impacts the Genesee River and vice versa how the Genesee River impacts the Erie Canal. Temperature, conductivity, suspended solids and P loads, mass balance, and aerial photography provided evidence for a transfer of water between the Genesee River and Erie Canal and vice versa. Temperature and conductivity of the entire water column of the canal east of the river were moderated by the warmer and lower conductivity of the canal west of the river (Canal West). At the downstream Genesee River site, conductivity and temperature provided evidence of a surficial layer created from Erie Canal water. Mass balance analysis suggested Canal West provided up to 67 % and 77 % of the inputs to the Genesee River and to the canal east of the river, respectively. The average daily Canal West phosphorus load (57.1 kg P/d) accounted for 14.8 % of the phosphorus load to the Genesee River and was higher than those of four major tributaries to the Genesee River. The high average daily load of TP and TSS (4.1 %) load from Canal West to the Genesee River represented a significant anthropogenic interbasin transfer from the Niagara River/Lake Erie via the Erie Canal to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario.

{"title":"Hydrology, chemistry, and sediment and nutrient loads at the intersection of the Genesee River and Erie Canal: An interbasin transfer","authors":"Lindsay Donahoe, Joseph C. Makarewicz","doi":"10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102488","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102488","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Genesee River crosses the Erie Canal before entering Lake Ontario near Rochester, New York. Nutrient, suspended solids, temperature, conductivity, flow, and loading data collected weekly over an entire year near the intersection of the Erie Canal and the Genesee River focused on the question on how the Erie Canal impacts the Genesee River and vice versa how the Genesee River impacts the Erie Canal. Temperature, conductivity, suspended solids and P loads, mass balance, and aerial photography provided evidence for a transfer of water between the Genesee River and Erie Canal and vice versa. Temperature and conductivity of the entire water column of the canal east of the river were moderated by the warmer and lower conductivity of the canal west of the river (Canal West). At the downstream Genesee River site, conductivity and temperature provided evidence of a surficial layer created from Erie Canal water. Mass balance analysis suggested Canal West provided up to 67 % and 77 % of the inputs to the Genesee River and to the canal east of the river, respectively. The average daily Canal West phosphorus load (57.1 kg P/d) accounted for 14.8 % of the phosphorus load to the Genesee River and was higher than those of four major tributaries to the Genesee River. The high average daily load of TP and TSS (4.1 %) load from Canal West to the Genesee River represented a significant anthropogenic interbasin transfer from the Niagara River/Lake Erie via the Erie Canal to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54818,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Great Lakes Research","volume":"51 1","pages":"Article 102488"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143129447","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0