Although diabetic retinopathy (DR) remains a leading cause of vision loss, the last decade has brought significant advances in the diagnosis and treatment of this common complication of diabetes mellitus. First, optical coherence tomography allows for noninvasive imaging of the retina, in particular, the macula, with very high resolution, thus facilitating the management of diabetic macular edema. In addition, recent advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology of DR, in particular, the key role of cytokines, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), have led to the development of anti-VEGF antibodies for intraocular use. Anti-VEGF therapies have largely replaced laser photocoagulation for the treatment of diabetic macular edema. The benefit of intravitreal anti-VEGF in diabetic macular edema has been proven in numerous large randomized controlled trials. Moreover, a role of inflammation in DR has been recognized, and several mainly steroid-based, anti-inflammatory agents for intravitreal treatment have been shown to be effective. Despite these recent advances, strict systemic control of glycemia remains the cornerstone of the management of DR, significantly reducing ocular complications. This chapter will provide an overview of current and novel concepts of DR and will allude to promising novel therapeutic options for this sight-threatening disease.
{"title":"Novelties in Diabetic Retinopathy.","authors":"A. Ebneter, M. Zinkernagel","doi":"10.1159/000439391","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000439391","url":null,"abstract":"Although diabetic retinopathy (DR) remains a leading cause of vision loss, the last decade has brought significant advances in the diagnosis and treatment of this common complication of diabetes mellitus. First, optical coherence tomography allows for noninvasive imaging of the retina, in particular, the macula, with very high resolution, thus facilitating the management of diabetic macular edema. In addition, recent advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology of DR, in particular, the key role of cytokines, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), have led to the development of anti-VEGF antibodies for intraocular use. Anti-VEGF therapies have largely replaced laser photocoagulation for the treatment of diabetic macular edema. The benefit of intravitreal anti-VEGF in diabetic macular edema has been proven in numerous large randomized controlled trials. Moreover, a role of inflammation in DR has been recognized, and several mainly steroid-based, anti-inflammatory agents for intravitreal treatment have been shown to be effective. Despite these recent advances, strict systemic control of glycemia remains the cornerstone of the management of DR, significantly reducing ocular complications. This chapter will provide an overview of current and novel concepts of DR and will allude to promising novel therapeutic options for this sight-threatening disease.","PeriodicalId":72906,"journal":{"name":"Endocrine development","volume":"31 1","pages":"84-96"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000439391","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"64906115","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (HH) often manifests as pubertal delay. A considerable proportion of cases of HH is due to genetic mutations. Recognizing those mutated genes and associated phenotypes may improve our diagnostic capabilities. GNRHR and TACR3 should be the first two genes to be screened in a clinical setting for equivocal cases such as constitutional delay in puberty versus idiopathic HH. In Kallmann syndrome (KS), according to the presence of certain accompanying clinical features, genetic screening for particular gene(s) may be prioritized: synkinesia (KAL1), dental agenesis (FGF8/FGFR1), bony anomalies (FGF8/FGFR1), and hearing loss (CHD7, SOX10). FEZF1 has recently been added to the growing list of KS genes. Also, discovery of mutations in KISS1/KISS1R and TAC3/TACR3 in kisspeptin and neurokinin B signaling, respectively, has provided major advancements in our understanding of the biology of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone pulse generator. Identification of further causative mutations accounting for the HH phenotype, which is now more feasible with the increasing popularity of whole exome sequencing, may provide deeper insight into the biology of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.
{"title":"Genetics of Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism.","authors":"A. Topaloğlu, L. D. Kotan","doi":"10.1159/000438841","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000438841","url":null,"abstract":"Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (HH) often manifests as pubertal delay. A considerable proportion of cases of HH is due to genetic mutations. Recognizing those mutated genes and associated phenotypes may improve our diagnostic capabilities. GNRHR and TACR3 should be the first two genes to be screened in a clinical setting for equivocal cases such as constitutional delay in puberty versus idiopathic HH. In Kallmann syndrome (KS), according to the presence of certain accompanying clinical features, genetic screening for particular gene(s) may be prioritized: synkinesia (KAL1), dental agenesis (FGF8/FGFR1), bony anomalies (FGF8/FGFR1), and hearing loss (CHD7, SOX10). FEZF1 has recently been added to the growing list of KS genes. Also, discovery of mutations in KISS1/KISS1R and TAC3/TACR3 in kisspeptin and neurokinin B signaling, respectively, has provided major advancements in our understanding of the biology of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone pulse generator. Identification of further causative mutations accounting for the HH phenotype, which is now more feasible with the increasing popularity of whole exome sequencing, may provide deeper insight into the biology of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.","PeriodicalId":72906,"journal":{"name":"Endocrine development","volume":"29 1","pages":"36-49"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000438841","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"64897821","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Gene therapy for rare inherited neurologic diseases has entered the clinics. One strategy relies upon the replacement of brain microglia using hematopoietic stem cell gene therapy with lentiviral vectors. Therapeutic success using this approach has been obtained in X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy and metachromatic leukodystrophy. The other strategy relies upon the intracerebral administration of adeno-associated virus vectors encoding lysosomal enzymes. Therapeutic trials are ongoing in Batten's disease, metachromatic leukodystrophy, and Sanfilippo type A and B diseases.
{"title":"Gene Therapy for Rare Central Nervous System Diseases Comes to Age.","authors":"P. Aubourg","doi":"10.1159/000439339","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000439339","url":null,"abstract":"Gene therapy for rare inherited neurologic diseases has entered the clinics. One strategy relies upon the replacement of brain microglia using hematopoietic stem cell gene therapy with lentiviral vectors. Therapeutic success using this approach has been obtained in X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy and metachromatic leukodystrophy. The other strategy relies upon the intracerebral administration of adeno-associated virus vectors encoding lysosomal enzymes. Therapeutic trials are ongoing in Batten's disease, metachromatic leukodystrophy, and Sanfilippo type A and B diseases.","PeriodicalId":72906,"journal":{"name":"Endocrine development","volume":"30 1","pages":"141-6"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000439339","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"64904767","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) is an important regulator of bone formation. Gain-of-function mutations in the FGFR3 gene result in chondrodysplasias which include achondroplasia (ACH), the most common form of dwarfism, in which skull, appendicular and axial skeletons are affected. The skeletal phenotype of patients with ACH showed defective proliferation and differentiation of the chondrocytes in the growth plate cartilage. Both endochondral and membranous ossification processes are disrupted during development. At cellular level, Fgfr3 mutations induce increased phosphorylation of the tyrosine kinase receptor FGFR3, which correlate with an enhanced activation of its downstream signaling pathways. Potential therapeutic strategies have emerged for ACH. Several preclinical studies have been conducted such as the C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) analog (BMN111), intermittent parathyroid hormone injections, soluble FGFR3 therapy, and meclozine and statin treatments. Among the putative targets to antagonize FGFR3 signaling, CNP (or BMN111) is one of the most promising strategies. BMN111 acts as a key regulator of longitudinal bone growth by downregulating the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, which is activated as a result of a FGFR3 gain-of-function mutation. Preclinical studies showed that BMN111 treatment led to a large improvement in skeletal parameters in Fgfr3Y367C/+ mice mimicking ACH. In 2014, a clinical trial (phase 2) of BMN111 in pediatric patients with ACH has started. This first clinical trial marks the first big step towards real treatment for these patients.
{"title":"C-Type Natriuretic Peptide Analog as Therapy for Achondroplasia.","authors":"L. Legeai-Mallet","doi":"10.1159/000439334","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000439334","url":null,"abstract":"Fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) is an important regulator of bone formation. Gain-of-function mutations in the FGFR3 gene result in chondrodysplasias which include achondroplasia (ACH), the most common form of dwarfism, in which skull, appendicular and axial skeletons are affected. The skeletal phenotype of patients with ACH showed defective proliferation and differentiation of the chondrocytes in the growth plate cartilage. Both endochondral and membranous ossification processes are disrupted during development. At cellular level, Fgfr3 mutations induce increased phosphorylation of the tyrosine kinase receptor FGFR3, which correlate with an enhanced activation of its downstream signaling pathways. Potential therapeutic strategies have emerged for ACH. Several preclinical studies have been conducted such as the C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) analog (BMN111), intermittent parathyroid hormone injections, soluble FGFR3 therapy, and meclozine and statin treatments. Among the putative targets to antagonize FGFR3 signaling, CNP (or BMN111) is one of the most promising strategies. BMN111 acts as a key regulator of longitudinal bone growth by downregulating the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, which is activated as a result of a FGFR3 gain-of-function mutation. Preclinical studies showed that BMN111 treatment led to a large improvement in skeletal parameters in Fgfr3Y367C/+ mice mimicking ACH. In 2014, a clinical trial (phase 2) of BMN111 in pediatric patients with ACH has started. This first clinical trial marks the first big step towards real treatment for these patients.","PeriodicalId":72906,"journal":{"name":"Endocrine development","volume":"30 1","pages":"98-105"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000439334","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"64905004","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Diabetes technology is an evolving field. The research started with the development of blood glucose meters for patient self-testing and the introduction of insulin pen injection devices. Modern devices employ new technological features, such as the use of computer simulations and mathematical algorithms, connectivity and signal transfer, and the use of modern (space research-derived) materials. With these innovations, the goal to develop an artificial pancreas by closing the loop between a continuous glucose sensor and a continuous insulin-delivering device via insulin delivery algorithms is coming closer to reality. As a consequence, interim achievements on this way result in the commercialization of innovative new diabetes technology devices, which help to facilitate the daily life of the affected people with diabetes.
{"title":"Diabetes Technology.","authors":"A. Pfützner","doi":"10.1159/000439389","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000439389","url":null,"abstract":"Diabetes technology is an evolving field. The research started with the development of blood glucose meters for patient self-testing and the introduction of insulin pen injection devices. Modern devices employ new technological features, such as the use of computer simulations and mathematical algorithms, connectivity and signal transfer, and the use of modern (space research-derived) materials. With these innovations, the goal to develop an artificial pancreas by closing the loop between a continuous glucose sensor and a continuous insulin-delivering device via insulin delivery algorithms is coming closer to reality. As a consequence, interim achievements on this way result in the commercialization of innovative new diabetes technology devices, which help to facilitate the daily life of the affected people with diabetes.","PeriodicalId":72906,"journal":{"name":"Endocrine development","volume":"31 1","pages":"57-83"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000439389","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"64906032","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Depot gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogs represent the first-line therapy in sexual precocity due to central precocious puberty. GnRH analogs desensitize the pituitary and account for the suppression of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone leading to a decrease of sex steroid levels. The conventional indications are central puberty starting before the age of 8 years in girls and 9 years in boys. These indications can be extended to difficult conditions with poor adult height prognosis or marked psychosocial impact. This includes children after irradiation, international adoption, and children with a physical handicap or mental disabilities. There are different formulations of depot preparations of GnRH analogs; long-acting 1- or 3-month forms are widely used in Europe and all are well tolerated with minor side effects. Overweight is often present at the onset of precocious puberty and some etiologies such as hamartomas predispose to obesity, requiring appropriate care for weight control during and after the cessation of GnRH analog treatment. Many studies have reported on the effects on adult height, which seems to be especially beneficial when treatment is started before the age of 6; however, few studies have focused on the establishment of the 1st menstruation, 1st sexual intercourse, socioprofessional outcome and subsequent fertility.
{"title":"Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Agonist Treatment in Sexual Precocity.","authors":"C. Pienkowski, M. Tauber","doi":"10.1159/000438893","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000438893","url":null,"abstract":"Depot gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogs represent the first-line therapy in sexual precocity due to central precocious puberty. GnRH analogs desensitize the pituitary and account for the suppression of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone leading to a decrease of sex steroid levels. The conventional indications are central puberty starting before the age of 8 years in girls and 9 years in boys. These indications can be extended to difficult conditions with poor adult height prognosis or marked psychosocial impact. This includes children after irradiation, international adoption, and children with a physical handicap or mental disabilities. There are different formulations of depot preparations of GnRH analogs; long-acting 1- or 3-month forms are widely used in Europe and all are well tolerated with minor side effects. Overweight is often present at the onset of precocious puberty and some etiologies such as hamartomas predispose to obesity, requiring appropriate care for weight control during and after the cessation of GnRH analog treatment. Many studies have reported on the effects on adult height, which seems to be especially beneficial when treatment is started before the age of 6; however, few studies have focused on the establishment of the 1st menstruation, 1st sexual intercourse, socioprofessional outcome and subsequent fertility.","PeriodicalId":72906,"journal":{"name":"Endocrine development","volume":"29 1","pages":"214-29"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000438893","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"64899316","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Obesity is a complex and retractable disease for which effective and durable treatments are elusive. Successful treatment of severe obesity with lifestyle modification therapy alone is highly unlikely, particularly for adolescents. Pharmacotherapy, if appropriately prescribed, can be an effective tool to use in conjunction with lifestyle modification therapy to achieve better weight loss outcomes. Only a few obesity medications have been evaluated in children and adolescents with results suggesting modest efficacy. However, a new pipeline of obesity drugs has been recently approved for use among adults. Among these, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1RA) treatment appears to have reasonable weight loss efficacy along with other beneficial pleiotropic effects. Although larger trials will be required to confirm the results, two small pediatric clinical trials have suggested that GLP-1RA treatment may be useful in adolescents with severe obesity. Once sufficient evidence is generated supporting the safety and efficacy of GLP-1RAs and other obesity medications in youth, the pediatric medical community needs to become less resistant to the use of pharmacotherapy. Otherwise, poor outcomes will continue to be the norm.
{"title":"Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonist Treatment for Pediatric Obesity.","authors":"A. Kelly","doi":"10.1159/000439323","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000439323","url":null,"abstract":"Obesity is a complex and retractable disease for which effective and durable treatments are elusive. Successful treatment of severe obesity with lifestyle modification therapy alone is highly unlikely, particularly for adolescents. Pharmacotherapy, if appropriately prescribed, can be an effective tool to use in conjunction with lifestyle modification therapy to achieve better weight loss outcomes. Only a few obesity medications have been evaluated in children and adolescents with results suggesting modest efficacy. However, a new pipeline of obesity drugs has been recently approved for use among adults. Among these, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1RA) treatment appears to have reasonable weight loss efficacy along with other beneficial pleiotropic effects. Although larger trials will be required to confirm the results, two small pediatric clinical trials have suggested that GLP-1RA treatment may be useful in adolescents with severe obesity. Once sufficient evidence is generated supporting the safety and efficacy of GLP-1RAs and other obesity medications in youth, the pediatric medical community needs to become less resistant to the use of pharmacotherapy. Otherwise, poor outcomes will continue to be the norm.","PeriodicalId":72906,"journal":{"name":"Endocrine development","volume":"30 1","pages":"23-8"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000439323","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"64904315","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Delayed puberty (DP) in boys is the lack of sexual maturation at a chronological age of 14 years. Several conditions induce DP and they can be classified into reversible and irreversible causes. The most common cause of DP is constitutional delay of puberty (CDP; 63%), followed by DPs due to functional hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (HH; 20%), congenital isolated HH (9%) and hypergonadotropic hypogonadism (7%). A correct diagnosis, although often difficult, is pivotal for choosing the most adequate therapy. In CDP boys, expectant management can be an option. However, patient's psychological distress can be attenuated by short-term low-dose testosterone therapy, which can induce male secondary sexual characteristics. When therapy is discontinued in CDP, pubertal development continues similarly to normal boys. Long-term testosterone therapy is the only option in boys with DP due to hypergonadotropic hypogonadism, whereas in subjects with HH, besides long-term testosterone, also gonadotropins and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) can be used. Gonadotropins and GnRH, besides inducing secondary sexual characteristics, can also induce testicular maturation and spermatogenesis. Other molecules, such as kisspeptin and neurokinin B agonists, are now under evaluation as new therapeutic options for treating DP.
{"title":"Different Medications for Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism.","authors":"G. Rastrelli, L. Vignozzi, M. Maggi","doi":"10.1159/000439332","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000439332","url":null,"abstract":"Delayed puberty (DP) in boys is the lack of sexual maturation at a chronological age of 14 years. Several conditions induce DP and they can be classified into reversible and irreversible causes. The most common cause of DP is constitutional delay of puberty (CDP; 63%), followed by DPs due to functional hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (HH; 20%), congenital isolated HH (9%) and hypergonadotropic hypogonadism (7%). A correct diagnosis, although often difficult, is pivotal for choosing the most adequate therapy. In CDP boys, expectant management can be an option. However, patient's psychological distress can be attenuated by short-term low-dose testosterone therapy, which can induce male secondary sexual characteristics. When therapy is discontinued in CDP, pubertal development continues similarly to normal boys. Long-term testosterone therapy is the only option in boys with DP due to hypergonadotropic hypogonadism, whereas in subjects with HH, besides long-term testosterone, also gonadotropins and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) can be used. Gonadotropins and GnRH, besides inducing secondary sexual characteristics, can also induce testicular maturation and spermatogenesis. Other molecules, such as kisspeptin and neurokinin B agonists, are now under evaluation as new therapeutic options for treating DP.","PeriodicalId":72906,"journal":{"name":"Endocrine development","volume":"30 1","pages":"60-78"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000439332","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"64904736","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The quality of glycaemic control in diabetes mellitus relies on accurate individualization of available treatment options. Treatment targets depend on the type and duration of diabetes, the patients' abilities and characteristics and the individual risk for acute and/or late-stage complications. These complications include hypoglycaemia, which can be severe and life threatening, hyperglycaemia, which is a main factor for the development of cardiovascular disease, and macrovascular and microvascular disease, both of which are hallmark features of diabetes-associated constraints. Moreover, other treatment goals in diabetic patients influence both glycaemic control and quality of life. Lipoproteins, blood pressure, weight control, mental health and lifestyle are important factors that contribute to the frequency of diabetes-associated complications.
{"title":"Treatment Goals in Diabetes.","authors":"A. Melmer, M. Laimer","doi":"10.1159/000439364","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000439364","url":null,"abstract":"The quality of glycaemic control in diabetes mellitus relies on accurate individualization of available treatment options. Treatment targets depend on the type and duration of diabetes, the patients' abilities and characteristics and the individual risk for acute and/or late-stage complications. These complications include hypoglycaemia, which can be severe and life threatening, hyperglycaemia, which is a main factor for the development of cardiovascular disease, and macrovascular and microvascular disease, both of which are hallmark features of diabetes-associated constraints. Moreover, other treatment goals in diabetic patients influence both glycaemic control and quality of life. Lipoproteins, blood pressure, weight control, mental health and lifestyle are important factors that contribute to the frequency of diabetes-associated complications.","PeriodicalId":72906,"journal":{"name":"Endocrine development","volume":"31 1","pages":"1-27"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000439364","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"64905182","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Reproductive hormones play a role at all stages of life and affect most tissues of the body. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) synthesized in the hypothalamus stimulates the secretion of gonadotropins which in turn stimulate gonadal sex hormone production and gamete formation. This hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis has, therefore, been the target for the development of numerous drugs which regulate it at various points. These include sex steroid agonists and antagonists, inhibitors of sex steroid biosynthesis, and GnRH agonists and antagonists, which have found extensive applications in treating numerous conditions such as precocious puberty, delayed puberty, prostate cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia, endometriosis, uterine fibroids and also in in vitro fertilization protocols. The novel neuroendocrine peptides, kisspeptin (KP) and neurokinin B (NKB), were recently discovered as upstream regulators of GnRH, and inactivating mutations of KP and NKB ligands or receptors result in a failure to progress through puberty. Agonists and antagonists of KP and NKB are being developed as more subtle modulators of the HPG axis. These new drugs offer additional and alternative therapeutic options in pediatric and adult hormone-dependent diseases.
生殖激素在生命的各个阶段都发挥作用，影响身体的大多数组织。下丘脑合成的促性腺激素释放激素(GnRH)刺激促性腺激素的分泌，促性腺激素反过来刺激性腺激素的产生和配子的形成。因此，这种下丘脑-垂体-性腺(HPG)轴已经成为许多药物开发的目标，这些药物可以在不同的点上调节它。这些药物包括性类固醇激动剂和拮抗剂、性类固醇生物合成抑制剂和GnRH激动剂和拮抗剂，它们已被广泛应用于治疗许多疾病，如性早熟、青春期延迟、前列腺癌、良性前列腺增生、子宫内膜异位症、子宫肌瘤以及体外受精方案。新的神经内分泌肽，kisspeptin (KP)和neurokinin B (NKB)，最近被发现是GnRH的上游调节因子，KP和NKB配体或受体的失活突变导致青春期发育失败。KP和NKB的激动剂和拮抗剂作为HPG轴的更微妙的调节剂正在开发中。这些新药为儿童和成人激素依赖性疾病提供了额外和替代的治疗选择。
{"title":"Therapeutic Neuroendocrine Agonist and Antagonist Analogs of Hypothalamic Neuropeptides as Modulators of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis.","authors":"C. Newton, Ross C. Anderson, R. Millar","doi":"10.1159/000439337","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000439337","url":null,"abstract":"Reproductive hormones play a role at all stages of life and affect most tissues of the body. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) synthesized in the hypothalamus stimulates the secretion of gonadotropins which in turn stimulate gonadal sex hormone production and gamete formation. This hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis has, therefore, been the target for the development of numerous drugs which regulate it at various points. These include sex steroid agonists and antagonists, inhibitors of sex steroid biosynthesis, and GnRH agonists and antagonists, which have found extensive applications in treating numerous conditions such as precocious puberty, delayed puberty, prostate cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia, endometriosis, uterine fibroids and also in in vitro fertilization protocols. The novel neuroendocrine peptides, kisspeptin (KP) and neurokinin B (NKB), were recently discovered as upstream regulators of GnRH, and inactivating mutations of KP and NKB ligands or receptors result in a failure to progress through puberty. Agonists and antagonists of KP and NKB are being developed as more subtle modulators of the HPG axis. These new drugs offer additional and alternative therapeutic options in pediatric and adult hormone-dependent diseases.","PeriodicalId":72906,"journal":{"name":"Endocrine development","volume":"30 1","pages":"106-29"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000439337","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"64905199","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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