Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences最新文献

This study presents a comprehensive investigation of a Roman metallic inkwell, identified as a Biebrich type typical of the first half of the 1st century CE, which was unearthed in the ancient town of Conimbriga, Portugal and remarkably preserved residues of its original ink. A multi-analytical methodology was employed to characterise both the alloy used in the inkwell production and the type of ink, integrating elemental techniques (X-ray fluorescence and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive) and spectroscopy with molecular analyses (chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance, analytical pyrolysis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy). The results revealed that the inkwell, which was cast from a bronze alloy consisting of copper, tin and lead, contained ink residues that were primarily composed of amorphous carbon, which was derived from the combustion of organic matter and mixed with beeswax as a binder. Additional components included calcite and phosphate groups consistent with bone black, along with iron, indicative of a mixture with iron-gall ink components. This study identifies a rare example of ‘mixed ink’ at Conimbriga, providing direct archaeological evidence that advances debates on the chronology, diversity, and transmission of ink technologies in the Roman world. This find represents the first documented Biebrich type inkwell discovered on the Iberian Peninsula, significantly expanding the known geographical distribution of this artifact type and offering new insights into Roman writing technologies and trade networks in the western provinces.

Traces of bloomery iron production are known from 150 archaeological sites in the lowland Drava River valley, NW Croatia. Excavated workspaces are dated to Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages (4th/5th – 8th/9th century). The sites can be referred to as iron production environments. These include workspaces with traces of iron production activities and adjoining areas with natural preconditions for the development of bog iron ores. The study analyses topsoil properties of one of these environments with the objective to define and distinguish pedogenic markers related to bog iron ore formation and deposits from anthropogenic activity markers related to iron production. This is achieved through comprehensive analysis of 67 topsoil samples set within a regular square grid in the research area. The samples are characterized by mineralogical (XRD), geochemical (pXRF), granulometric, and soil pH analysis. Multivariate statistical and spatial analyses are used to understand influences on the topsoil properties. The analysis shows: (1) the spatial delineation of bog iron ore occurrence and iron production site, (2) primary (Fe, As, P, Mn, Ba, Th and goethite) and secondary (Ni, Cu, Zn, Hg, Pb) markers associated with the bog iron ore occurrence, (3) a positive trend in the representation of primary markers, associated with development potential of bog iron ores at different micro-locations, (4) markers for iron production sites related to ferrous slag (Fe, Pb, Zn), technical ceramics and wood ash/charcoal (P, Ca, K, Mg, Sr, Zn, Pb and calcite, amphibole minerals), (5) long-term influence on topsoil pH above archaeological record.

Archaeological field surveys frequently rely on collection unit methodologies to map surface artifact distributions across landscapes. While effective in rapidly covering large areas, these methods face persistent limitations that arise from sampling biases and post-depositional histories. The Maharal Valley Project, Israel, tackles these challenges through an innovative integrative framework that strengthens the analytical capabilities of collection unit field surveys. This includes high-resolution, contiguous collection-unit survey integrated with hexagonal tessellation for post-field data standardization as well as considering multiple parameters that influence artifact collection numbers. These steps enable modeling the effects of visibility conditions to adjust artifact counts for sampling biases towards a more accurate exploration of their distribution across time and space (To this end the article is accompanied by substantial methodological detail in the supplementary materials). We further emphasize the importance of incorporating geoarchaeology as an integral part of the survey and, accordingly, excavated several trenches to assess post-depositional processes, aiming to exclude sediment displacement and support the integrity of surface scatters as proxies for ancient activity. The results are discussed in comparison to former work in the southern Levant, highlighting the importance of landscape exploitation and reveal several distinct patterns from the Middle Paleolithic to the Ottoman-period. This integrative framework enhances the analytical power of surface surveys, providing a replicable model for bridging field data collection and spatial analysis in regional archaeological research. 

During the 3rd millennium BCE, major copper smelting activities using wind-powered furnaces took place in the Wadi Arabah, particularly in the Faynan region of Jordan. In the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE, smelting operations at Timna and Wadi Amram, and later in Faynan, employed a different smelting technology, using an artificial air source. Copper smelting and overall settlement activities in the first half of the second millennium BCE (The Middle Bronze Age) were scarcely attested. This study shows that copper smelting technology continued from the 3rd to the 2nd millennium BCE, filling this alleged gap. Here we present the study of copper slag collected from two hilltops in the southern Arabah, Be'er Ora Hill and Tell Hara Hadid, dated through radiocarbon dating to the late 3rd and first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Metallurgical analyses focused on the characterization of the slag, the question of tapping, and the efficiency of smelting. Results were compared to slag samples from two 3rd millennium BCE sites in the northern Arabah and Lead Isotope Analysis was also employed for provenancing. While the overall continuity of the smelting technology is indicated, changes in the organization of production and the source of copper ore are suggested.

A nondestructive technological, petrographic and granulometric analysis of 75 lithic artifacts excavated by M. Piperno in the 1980s in the Early Palaeolithic site of Notarchirico (Venosa, Southern Italy) was carried out to check their compatibility with the lag deposit of layer B (MIS 15) and the hypothesis of lithological selection for knapping by hominins. A total of 289 clasts selected via a virtual grid superimposed to orthophotographs of three areas documenting the palaeosurface of layer B (MIS15) were petrographically analyzed in situ to identify the petrofacies of the lag deposit from which the artifacts were collected. The results obtained proved the lithic artifacts are compatible with clasts of layer B from a granulometric, petrographic and morphological point of view and that only some of the available lithotypes in layer B were used to knap artifacts. Although limestones, cherts, marls and sandstones were available in layer B, the latter are not present among lithic artifacts as lithotype. Moreover, the size and rock texture resulted to be stronger selection criteria than lithology. In fact, since the maximum length of stone tools are higher than those of layer B’s clasts, this points to a supply area by hominins of lithic raw material larger than the investigated palaeosurface. This study contributes to investigate the mode and criteria of selection of raw materials for knapping and shaping by hominins living in the South of Europe during the MIS 15 at 600 ka.

The discovery of Gold -and Silver-Inlaid Iron Sticks unearthed from the Tomb No. 2 at Tushan in Xuzhou, provides invaluable historical material for the study of the development of manufacturing techniques for Gold- and Silver-Inlaid Iron Objects during the Eastern Han Dynasty. They are of considerable historical and artistic value. In this study, a comprehensive analysis of the decorative features, material and manufacturing techniques of the Gold- and Silver-Inlaid Iron Sticks was conducted using a range of methods, including X-ray imaging, Three-Dimensional X-ray Imaging, super depth of field microscope, metallographic analysis, and SEM-EDS. The study delineated that the Gold -and Silver-Inlaid Iron Stick is approximately 25.5 cm long and 0.4 cm in diameter, with cloud patterns and geometric patterns on surface. The primary material of the iron sticks is carbon steel, and has undergone casting and annealing processes. The grooves are created using both casting and engraving techniques. The gold-inlaid wires have a high purity, with gold ranging from 81 to 87%, and silver present as an impurity. The silver-inlaid wires have a purity of 97–99%. The gold-inlaid parts were produced using the twisting method. This study has conducted a detailed restoration of the morphology and layout of the gold and silver decorations on the surface of the artifact, providing key evidence for the discussion of its specific function, and offering an important reference for the study of the decoration and craftsmanship of Gold- and Silver-Inlaid Iron Objects during the Eastern Han Dynasty.

Archaeological ceramics in Mesoamerica sometimes display a whitish layer in the inner part of the vessels, which has been related to the use of lime to obtain alkaline solutions for treating foodstuffs, in particular maize, in a process that is called nixtamalization. In this paper we provide more evidence for this practice, and we also suggest that alkaline solutions might have been used to process other foodstuff. With this aim we have studied ceramic vessels recovered from Postclassic Xochimilco, Central Mexico. We analyzed the white layer through FT-IR to confirm it was made of calcium carbonate, and observed it by binocular microscopy, which allowed us to record the presence of several microlayers, that might have been formed during multiple uses of the vessels. Starch grain analyses were applied to identify residues preserved in these layers and the ceramic surface. The results suggest that the presence of a whitish layer was associated not only to maize, but also to other plant foodstuffs, therefore suggesting that Xochimilcans from the Mexica lordship in pre-Hispanic times were likely applying alkaline treatments to process different plant ingredients. The use of alkaline products to treat food besides maize is common in modern Mexico, but to date, it has not been reported archaeologically.

This study re-examines metal provenance within the Atlantic Bronze Age (ca. 1300–700 BC). Despite clear typological links between objects found from Wales to Galicia, reconstructing the geochemical pathways of metal exchange has long been hindered, probably by the practice of recycling. Using a dataset of 337 copper-based artefacts and a robust set of lead isotope signatures from major Bronze Age copper-producing regions (Wales, southern Iberia, the Alps, Cyprus, and Tyrol), this paper applies a multivariate statistical model—a Bayesian mixing model implemented with the MixSIAR package—to estimate the probable contributions of various sources to each artefact. The results demonstrate that over 80% of the analysed artefacts are likely composed of copper from multiple sources. These mixtures are dominated by metals originating within the Atlantic complex itself, though contributions from Alpine and Cypriot sources are also detected. Temporal and regional variations suggest structured, rather than opportunistic, exchange dynamics.

This study presents the results of a comprehensive archaeometric investigation of a glass assemblage from the early medieval levels of San Pietro in Castello (Olivolo, Venice), a site of strategic importance during the formative stages of the city. A total of 45 samples, including finished vessels, architectural glass, production waste and a crucible, were analysed using SEM-EDS, EMPA, and LA-ICP-MS. As for glassmaking technology, the results reveal various colouring and opacification strategies, including the use of metallurgical by-products such as cobalt-bearing slag and the co-occurrence of calcium antimonates and lead stannates for the realization of decorative threads. Furthermore, the analysis of the steatite crucible and adhering glass provides insight into contamination processes and their implications for provenance studies. As for glass provenance, the chemical composition shows a near-equal distribution of Levantine and Egyptian natron glass, though differently distributed from a chronological standpoint (Levantine only in later phases). Of particular interest is also the finding of two plant-ash based glass samples, with the earliest one dating to the 8^th century and attributed to Syro-Levantine production. Overall, the findings highlight Venice’s early involvement in the technological transition from natron- to plant ash-based glass and suggest that the San Pietro in Castello site may have played a pivotal role in the distribution and reworking of imported raw materials.

The use of fire for the treatment of human remains in funerary rituals characterises Italian prehistory since the Neolithic, being the dominant funerary practice from the Late Bronze Age to the Early Roman period, with regional differences. New osteoarchaeological and radiometric data allow us to confirm the occasional use of fire as a transformative element for the body already in the Early Neolithic. During the excavation of the Early Neolithic settlement of Lugo di Grezzana in 2003 and 2005 (Fiorano Culture – province of Verona, Veneto, northeastern Italy), five pits were discovered, each containing burnt osteological remains. One pit, interpreted as an oven (ES 541 sector XVI), yielded numerous bones intermingled with abundant fragments of pottery and flint. Most of the bones were identified as non-human remains. However, the morphological examination revealed fragments of diaphyses with characteristics consistent with human bone. Subsequent histomorphological analysis confirmed the taxonomic identification of these fragments as belonging to the genus Homo and provided insights into the age distribution, indicating that they belonged to individuals spanning different age groups. The ¹⁴C analysis of charcoal and bones suggests that the use of ovens dates from 5400 to 5000 cal BCE. A new radiocarbon date of a calcined human bone fragment has been placed between 5024 and 4845 cal BCE, indicating that the oven was likely reused as funerary structure during the final phase of the site use. This discovery has increased the number of recent findings of burnt human bones within Neolithic contexts in Italy, prompting us to reflect on the significance of their presence as possible early evidence of fire rituals involving the treatment of human remains in the Italian Peninsula.