Pub Date : 2025-03-20DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/202452627
X. Xu, R. F. Peletier, P. Awad, M. A. Raj, R. Smith
<i>Context.<i/> Dwarf galaxies play an important role when studying the effects of the environment on galaxy formation and evolution. The Fornax cluster, having a dense core and strong tidal fields, offers an ideal laboratory for investigating the influence of the cluster environment on the morphology of dwarf galaxies.<i>Aims.<i/> We explore the relationship between the morphology of galaxies, in particular the asymmetries, and their distances to the cluster centre to study the effect of tidal forces and other environmental processes. We did this by investigating the detailed morphologies of a complete magnitude-limited sample of 556 galaxies within the Fornax cluster, spanning a radius range up to 1.75 Mpc from its central to the outer regions.<i>Methods.<i/> For galaxies in the Fornax Deep Survey, we quantified the morphologies of dwarf galaxies using the non-parametric quantities asymmetry (<i>A<i/>) and smoothness (<i>S<i/>), as part of the CAS system. Unlike previous work, we used isophotal CAS parameters, which are sensitive to the outer parts of galaxies. We constructed <i>A<i/> − <i>r<i/> (asymmetry vs. distance to cluster centre) and <i>S<i/> − <i>r<i/> (smoothness vs. distance to the cluster centre) diagrams to investigate the relationship between morphology and distance. Additionally, we examined the effects of asymmetry on magnitude and colour. Furthermore, to better understand the assembly history of the galaxy cluster, we performed a phase-space analysis for Fornax dwarf galaxies, using spectroscopic redshifts and the projected distance from the cluster centre.<i>Results.<i/> We find that dwarf galaxies in the outer regions of the Fornax cluster have higher values of asymmetry compared to other dwarfs in the cluster, indicating a greater degree of morphological disturbances within dwarf galaxies in these regions. We also find that galaxies in the very inner regions are more asymmetric than those farther out. The <i>A<i/>-magnitude relation reveals a trend where asymmetry increases as galaxies become fainter, and the <i>A<i/>-colour relation shows that galaxies with bluer colours tend to exhibit stronger asymmetry. We do not find any correlations with smoothness, except that smoothness strongly decreases with stellar mass. We propose that the higher asymmetry of dwarfs in the outer regions is most likely caused by ram pressure stripping. As galaxies fall into the cluster, gas is expelled by intracluster winds, causing ‘jellyfish-like’ tails and leading to star formation not only in the central regions but also along the tails; this causes the asymmetric features. These asymmetries persist until the galaxies evolve into completely quiescent and elliptical systems. The observed dwarfs likely represent a transitional phase, during which they are nearing quiescence but still retain residual asymmetry from earlier interactions. In the very inner parts, the asymmetries most likely are caused by tidal effects. In addition, our phase-space
{"title":"Asymmetry at low surface brightnesses as an indicator of environmental processes in the Fornax cluster","authors":"X. Xu, R. F. Peletier, P. Awad, M. A. Raj, R. Smith","doi":"10.1051/0004-6361/202452627","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202452627","url":null,"abstract":"<i>Context.<i/> Dwarf galaxies play an important role when studying the effects of the environment on galaxy formation and evolution. The Fornax cluster, having a dense core and strong tidal fields, offers an ideal laboratory for investigating the influence of the cluster environment on the morphology of dwarf galaxies.<i>Aims.<i/> We explore the relationship between the morphology of galaxies, in particular the asymmetries, and their distances to the cluster centre to study the effect of tidal forces and other environmental processes. We did this by investigating the detailed morphologies of a complete magnitude-limited sample of 556 galaxies within the Fornax cluster, spanning a radius range up to 1.75 Mpc from its central to the outer regions.<i>Methods.<i/> For galaxies in the Fornax Deep Survey, we quantified the morphologies of dwarf galaxies using the non-parametric quantities asymmetry (<i>A<i/>) and smoothness (<i>S<i/>), as part of the CAS system. Unlike previous work, we used isophotal CAS parameters, which are sensitive to the outer parts of galaxies. We constructed <i>A<i/> − <i>r<i/> (asymmetry vs. distance to cluster centre) and <i>S<i/> − <i>r<i/> (smoothness vs. distance to the cluster centre) diagrams to investigate the relationship between morphology and distance. Additionally, we examined the effects of asymmetry on magnitude and colour. Furthermore, to better understand the assembly history of the galaxy cluster, we performed a phase-space analysis for Fornax dwarf galaxies, using spectroscopic redshifts and the projected distance from the cluster centre.<i>Results.<i/> We find that dwarf galaxies in the outer regions of the Fornax cluster have higher values of asymmetry compared to other dwarfs in the cluster, indicating a greater degree of morphological disturbances within dwarf galaxies in these regions. We also find that galaxies in the very inner regions are more asymmetric than those farther out. The <i>A<i/>-magnitude relation reveals a trend where asymmetry increases as galaxies become fainter, and the <i>A<i/>-colour relation shows that galaxies with bluer colours tend to exhibit stronger asymmetry. We do not find any correlations with smoothness, except that smoothness strongly decreases with stellar mass. We propose that the higher asymmetry of dwarfs in the outer regions is most likely caused by ram pressure stripping. As galaxies fall into the cluster, gas is expelled by intracluster winds, causing ‘jellyfish-like’ tails and leading to star formation not only in the central regions but also along the tails; this causes the asymmetric features. These asymmetries persist until the galaxies evolve into completely quiescent and elliptical systems. The observed dwarfs likely represent a transitional phase, during which they are nearing quiescence but still retain residual asymmetry from earlier interactions. In the very inner parts, the asymmetries most likely are caused by tidal effects. In addition, our phase-space ","PeriodicalId":8571,"journal":{"name":"Astronomy & Astrophysics","volume":"183 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666080","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-03-20DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/202452286
Hugo Tranin, Nadejda Blagorodnova, Viraj Karambelkar, Paul J. Groot, Steven Bloemen, Paul M. Vreeswijk, Daniëlle L. A. Pieterse, Jan van Roestel
Context. After the main sequence phase, stars more massive than 2.5 M⊙ rapidly evolve through the Hertzsprung gap as yellow giants and yellow supergiants (YSGs) before settling into the red giant branch. Identifying Hertzsprung gap stars in nearby galaxies is crucial for pinpointing progenitors of luminous red novae (LRNe) – astrophysical transients attributed to stellar mergers. In the era of extensive transient surveys like the Vera C. Rubin Observatory’s Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST), this approach offers a new way to predict and select common envelope transients.Aims. This study investigates potential progenitors and precursors of LRNe by analysing Hubble Space Telescope (HST) photometry of stellar populations in galaxies within ∼20 Mpc to identify YSG candidates. Additionally, we use the Zwicky Transient Facility and MeerLICHT/BlackGEM to identify possible precursors, preparing for future observations by the LSST.Methods. We compiled a sample of 369 galaxies with HST exposures in the F 475W, F 555W, F 606W, and F814W filters. We identified YSG candidates using MESA stellar evolution tracks and statistical analysis of colour–magnitude diagrams.Results. Our sample includes 154 494 YSG candidates with masses between 3 M⊙ and 20 M⊙ and is affected by various contaminants, notably foreground stars and extinguished main sequence stars. After excluding foreground stars using Gaia proper motions, contamination is estimated at 1% from foreground stars (based on TRILEGAL simulations) and ∼20% from extinction affecting main sequence stars. Combining our YSG candidates with time-domain catalogues yielded several interesting candidates. In particular, we identified 12 LRN precursor candidates for which follow-up is encouraged.Conclusions. We highlight the importance of monitoring future transients that match YSG candidates to avoid missing potential LRNe and other rare transients. LSST will be a game changer in the search for LRN progenitors and precursors; it is predicted to discover over 300 000 new YSG candidates and 100 LRN precursors within 20 Mpc.
{"title":"Hertzsprung gap stars in nearby galaxies and the quest for luminous red nova progenitors","authors":"Hugo Tranin, Nadejda Blagorodnova, Viraj Karambelkar, Paul J. Groot, Steven Bloemen, Paul M. Vreeswijk, Daniëlle L. A. Pieterse, Jan van Roestel","doi":"10.1051/0004-6361/202452286","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202452286","url":null,"abstract":"<i>Context.<i/> After the main sequence phase, stars more massive than 2.5 M<sub>⊙<sub/> rapidly evolve through the Hertzsprung gap as yellow giants and yellow supergiants (YSGs) before settling into the red giant branch. Identifying Hertzsprung gap stars in nearby galaxies is crucial for pinpointing progenitors of luminous red novae (LRNe) – astrophysical transients attributed to stellar mergers. In the era of extensive transient surveys like the <i>Vera C. Rubin<i/> Observatory’s Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST), this approach offers a new way to predict and select common envelope transients.<i>Aims.<i/> This study investigates potential progenitors and precursors of LRNe by analysing <i>Hubble<i/> Space Telescope (HST) photometry of stellar populations in galaxies within ∼20 Mpc to identify YSG candidates. Additionally, we use the <i>Zwicky<i/> Transient Facility and MeerLICHT/BlackGEM to identify possible precursors, preparing for future observations by the LSST.<i>Methods.<i/> We compiled a sample of 369 galaxies with HST exposures in the <i>F<i/> 475<i>W<i/>, <i>F<i/> 555<i>W<i/>, <i>F<i/> 606<i>W<i/>, and <i>F<i/>814<i>W<i/> filters. We identified YSG candidates using MESA stellar evolution tracks and statistical analysis of colour–magnitude diagrams.<i>Results.<i/> Our sample includes 154 494 YSG candidates with masses between 3 <i>M<i/><sub>⊙<sub/> and 20 <i>M<i/><sub>⊙<sub/> and is affected by various contaminants, notably foreground stars and extinguished main sequence stars. After excluding foreground stars using <i>Gaia<i/> proper motions, contamination is estimated at 1% from foreground stars (based on TRILEGAL simulations) and ∼20% from extinction affecting main sequence stars. Combining our YSG candidates with time-domain catalogues yielded several interesting candidates. In particular, we identified 12 LRN precursor candidates for which follow-up is encouraged.<i>Conclusions.<i/> We highlight the importance of monitoring future transients that match YSG candidates to avoid missing potential LRNe and other rare transients. LSST will be a game changer in the search for LRN progenitors and precursors; it is predicted to discover over 300 000 new YSG candidates and 100 LRN precursors within 20 Mpc.","PeriodicalId":8571,"journal":{"name":"Astronomy & Astrophysics","volume":"199 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666083","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-03-20DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/202452209
Silvio Rodríguez, Valeria A. Cristiani, Laura V. Sales, Mario G. Abadi
Context. Disc-dominated galaxies can be difficult to accommodate in a hierarchical formation scenario such as Λ cold dark matter (ΛCDM), where mergers are an important growth mechanism. However, observational evidence indicates that these galaxies are common in the Universe.Aims. We seek to characterise the conditions that lead to the formation of disc-dominated galaxies within ΛCDM.Methods. We used dynamical decomposition of the stellar particles in all galaxies with stellar mass M∗ = [1010 − 1011] M⊙ within the cosmological hydrodynamical simulation Illustris TNG100. We selected a sample of 43 mostly-disc galaxies that have less than ∼10% of their mass in a bulge component. For comparison, we also studied two additional stellar-mass matched samples: 43 intermediate galaxies having ∼30% of their stellar mass in the bulge and 43 with a purely spheroidal-like morphology.Results. We find that the selection purely based on stellar dynamics is able to reproduce the expected stellar population trends of different morphological types, with higher star-formation rates and younger stars in disc-dominated galaxies. Halo spin seems to play no role in the morphology of the galaxies, in agreement with previous works. At a fixed M*, our mostly-disc and intermediate samples form in dark matter haloes that are two to ten times less massive than the spheroidal sample, highlighting a higher efficiency in disc galaxies to retain and condensate their baryons. On average, mergers are less prevalent in the buildup of discs than in spheroidal galaxies, but there is a large scatter, including the existence of mostly-disc galaxies, with 15%–30% of their stars coming from accreted origin. Discs start to form early on, settling their low vertical velocity dispersion as early as 9–10 Gyr ago, although the dominance of the disc over the spheroid was established more recently (3–4 Gyr lookback time). The most rotationally supported discs form in haloes with the lowest virial mass in the sample and the best aligned distribution of angular momentum in the gas.
{"title":"The assembly of the most rotationally supported disc galaxies in the TNG100 simulations","authors":"Silvio Rodríguez, Valeria A. Cristiani, Laura V. Sales, Mario G. Abadi","doi":"10.1051/0004-6361/202452209","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202452209","url":null,"abstract":"<i>Context.<i/> Disc-dominated galaxies can be difficult to accommodate in a hierarchical formation scenario such as Λ cold dark matter (ΛCDM), where mergers are an important growth mechanism. However, observational evidence indicates that these galaxies are common in the Universe.<i>Aims.<i/> We seek to characterise the conditions that lead to the formation of disc-dominated galaxies within ΛCDM.<i>Methods.<i/> We used dynamical decomposition of the stellar particles in all galaxies with stellar mass <i>M<i/><sub>∗<sub/> = [10<sup>10<sup/> − 10<sup>11<sup/>] M<sub>⊙<sub/> within the cosmological hydrodynamical simulation Illustris TNG100. We selected a sample of 43 mostly-disc galaxies that have less than ∼10% of their mass in a bulge component. For comparison, we also studied two additional stellar-mass matched samples: 43 intermediate galaxies having ∼30% of their stellar mass in the bulge and 43 with a purely spheroidal-like morphology.<i>Results.<i/> We find that the selection purely based on stellar dynamics is able to reproduce the expected stellar population trends of different morphological types, with higher star-formation rates and younger stars in disc-dominated galaxies. Halo spin seems to play no role in the morphology of the galaxies, in agreement with previous works. At a fixed <i>M<i/><sub>*<sub/>, our mostly-disc and intermediate samples form in dark matter haloes that are two to ten times less massive than the spheroidal sample, highlighting a higher efficiency in disc galaxies to retain and condensate their baryons. On average, mergers are less prevalent in the buildup of discs than in spheroidal galaxies, but there is a large scatter, including the existence of mostly-disc galaxies, with 15%–30% of their stars coming from accreted origin. Discs start to form early on, settling their low vertical velocity dispersion as early as 9–10 Gyr ago, although the dominance of the disc over the spheroid was established more recently (3–4 Gyr lookback time). The most rotationally supported discs form in haloes with the lowest virial mass in the sample and the best aligned distribution of angular momentum in the gas.","PeriodicalId":8571,"journal":{"name":"Astronomy & Astrophysics","volume":"27 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666079","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-03-20DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/202449599
F. Kleinebreil, S. Grandis, T. Schrabback, V. Ghirardini, I. Chiu, A. Liu, M. Kluge, T. H. Reiprich, E. Artis, Y. E. Bahar, F. Balzer, E. Bulbul, N. Clerc, J. Comparat, C. Garrel, D. Gruen, X. Li, H. Miyatake, S. Miyazaki, M. E. Ramos-Ceja, J. Sanders, R. Seppi, N. Okabe, X. Zhang
Aims. We aim to participate in the calibration of the X-ray photon count rate to halo mass scaling relation of galaxy clusters selected in the first eROSITA All-Sky Survey on the western Galactic hemisphere (eRASS1) using weak-lensing (WL) data from the fourth data release of the Kilo-Degree Survey (KiDS-1000). We therefore measured the radial shear profiles around eRASS1 galaxy clusters using background galaxies in KiDS-1000 as well as the cluster member contamination. Furthermore, we provide consistency checks with the other stage-III weak-lensing surveys that take part in the eRASS1 mass calibration, the Dark Energy Survey Year 3 (DES Y3) and Hyper Suprime-Cam Year 3 (HSC-Y3), as KiDS-1000 has overlap with both surveys.Methods. We determined the cluster member contamination of eRASS1 clusters present in KiDS-1000 based on background galaxy number density profiles, where we accounted for the optical obscuration caused by cluster galaxies. The extracted shear profiles, together with the result of the contamination model and the lens sample selection, were then analysed through a Bayesian population model. We calibrated the WL mass bias parameter by analysing realistic synthetic shear profiles from mock cluster catalogues. Our consistency checks between KiDS-1000 and DES Y3 and HSC-Y3 include the comparison of contamination-corrected density contrast profiles and amplitudes by employing the union of background sources around common clusters as well as the individual scaling relation results.Results. We present a global contamination model for eRASS1 clusters in KiDS-1000 and the calibration results of the X-ray photon count rate to halo mass relation. The results of the WL mass bias parameter bWL obtained through mock observations show that hydro-dynamical modelling uncertainties only play a sub-dominant role in KiDS-1000. The uncertainty of the multiplicative shear bias dominates the systematic error budget at low cluster redshifts, while the uncertainty of our contamination model does so at high ones. The crosschecks between the three WL surveys show that they are for the most part statistically consistent with each other. This enables, for the first time, cosmological constraints from clusters calibrated by three state-of-the-art weak-lensing surveys.
{"title":"The SRG/eROSITA All-Sky Survey","authors":"F. Kleinebreil, S. Grandis, T. Schrabback, V. Ghirardini, I. Chiu, A. Liu, M. Kluge, T. H. Reiprich, E. Artis, Y. E. Bahar, F. Balzer, E. Bulbul, N. Clerc, J. Comparat, C. Garrel, D. Gruen, X. Li, H. Miyatake, S. Miyazaki, M. E. Ramos-Ceja, J. Sanders, R. Seppi, N. Okabe, X. Zhang","doi":"10.1051/0004-6361/202449599","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202449599","url":null,"abstract":"<i>Aims.<i/> We aim to participate in the calibration of the X-ray photon count rate to halo mass scaling relation of galaxy clusters selected in the first eROSITA All-Sky Survey on the western Galactic hemisphere (eRASS1) using weak-lensing (WL) data from the fourth data release of the Kilo-Degree Survey (KiDS-1000). We therefore measured the radial shear profiles around eRASS1 galaxy clusters using background galaxies in KiDS-1000 as well as the cluster member contamination. Furthermore, we provide consistency checks with the other stage-III weak-lensing surveys that take part in the eRASS1 mass calibration, the Dark Energy Survey Year 3 (DES Y3) and Hyper Suprime-Cam Year 3 (HSC-Y3), as KiDS-1000 has overlap with both surveys.<i>Methods.<i/> We determined the cluster member contamination of eRASS1 clusters present in KiDS-1000 based on background galaxy number density profiles, where we accounted for the optical obscuration caused by cluster galaxies. The extracted shear profiles, together with the result of the contamination model and the lens sample selection, were then analysed through a Bayesian population model. We calibrated the WL mass bias parameter by analysing realistic synthetic shear profiles from mock cluster catalogues. Our consistency checks between KiDS-1000 and DES Y3 and HSC-Y3 include the comparison of contamination-corrected density contrast profiles and amplitudes by employing the union of background sources around common clusters as well as the individual scaling relation results.<i>Results.<i/> We present a global contamination model for eRASS1 clusters in KiDS-1000 and the calibration results of the X-ray photon count rate to halo mass relation. The results of the WL mass bias parameter <i>b<i/><sub>WL<sub/> obtained through mock observations show that hydro-dynamical modelling uncertainties only play a sub-dominant role in KiDS-1000. The uncertainty of the multiplicative shear bias dominates the systematic error budget at low cluster redshifts, while the uncertainty of our contamination model does so at high ones. The crosschecks between the three WL surveys show that they are for the most part statistically consistent with each other. This enables, for the first time, cosmological constraints from clusters calibrated by three state-of-the-art weak-lensing surveys.","PeriodicalId":8571,"journal":{"name":"Astronomy & Astrophysics","volume":"92 6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143665912","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-03-20DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/202451366
V. M. A. Gómez-González, L. M. Oskinova, W.-R. Hamann, H. Todt, D. Pauli, S. Reyero Serantes, M. Bernini-Peron, A. A. C. Sander, V. Ramachandran, J. S. Vink, P. A. Crowther, S. R. Berlanas, A. ud-Doula, A. C. Gormaz-Matamala, C. Kehrig, R. Kuiper, C. Leitherer, L. Mahy, A. F. McLeod, A. Mehner, N. Morrell, T. Shenar, O. G. Telford, J. Th. van Loon, F. Tramper, A. Wofford
Massive stars drive the ionization and mechanical feedback within young star-forming regions. The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is an ideal galaxy for studying individual massive stars and quantifying their feedback contribution to the environment. We analyze eight exemplary targets in LMC N11 B from the Hubble UV Legacy Library of Young Stars as Essential Standards (ULLYSES) program using novel spectra from HST (COS and STIS) in the UV, and from VLT (X-shooter) in the optical. We model the spectra of early to late O-type stars using state-of-the-art PoWR atmosphere models. We determine the stellar and wind parameters (e.g., T⋆, log g, L⋆, Ṁ, and v∞) of the analyzed objects, chemical abundances (C, N, and O), ionizing and mechanical feedback (QH, QHeI, QHe II, and Lmec), and X-rays. We report ages of 2–4.5 Myr and masses of 30–60 M⊙ for the analyzed stars in N11 B, which are consistent with a scenario of sequential star formation. We note that the observed wind-momentum–luminosity relation is consistent with theoretical predictions. We detect nitrogen enrichment by up to a factor of seven in most of the stars. However, we do not find a correlation between nitrogen enrichment and projected rotational velocity. Finally, based on their spectral type, we estimate the total ionizing photons injected from the O-type stars in N11 B into its environment. We report log (Σ QH) = 50.5 ph s−1, log (Σ QHe I) = 49.6 ph s−1, and log (Σ QHe II)= 44.4 ph s−1, consistent with the total ionizing budget in N11.
{"title":"X-Shooting ULLYSES: Massive stars at low metallicity","authors":"V. M. A. Gómez-González, L. M. Oskinova, W.-R. Hamann, H. Todt, D. Pauli, S. Reyero Serantes, M. Bernini-Peron, A. A. C. Sander, V. Ramachandran, J. S. Vink, P. A. Crowther, S. R. Berlanas, A. ud-Doula, A. C. Gormaz-Matamala, C. Kehrig, R. Kuiper, C. Leitherer, L. Mahy, A. F. McLeod, A. Mehner, N. Morrell, T. Shenar, O. G. Telford, J. Th. van Loon, F. Tramper, A. Wofford","doi":"10.1051/0004-6361/202451366","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202451366","url":null,"abstract":"Massive stars drive the ionization and mechanical feedback within young star-forming regions. The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is an ideal galaxy for studying individual massive stars and quantifying their feedback contribution to the environment. We analyze eight exemplary targets in LMC N11 B from the Hubble UV Legacy Library of Young Stars as Essential Standards (ULLYSES) program using novel spectra from <i>HST<i/> (<i>COS<i/> and <i>STIS<i/>) in the UV, and from VLT (X-shooter) in the optical. We model the spectra of early to late O-type stars using state-of-the-art PoWR atmosphere models. We determine the stellar and wind parameters (e.g., <i>T<i/><sub>⋆<sub/>, log g, <i>L<i/><sub>⋆<sub/>, <i>Ṁ<i/>, and <i>v<i/><sub>∞<sub/>) of the analyzed objects, chemical abundances (C, N, and O), ionizing and mechanical feedback (<i>Q<i/><sub>H<sub/>, <i>Q<i/><sub>HeI<sub/>, <i>Q<i/><sub>He II<sub/>, and <i>L<i/><sub>mec<sub/>), and X-rays. We report ages of 2–4.5 Myr and masses of 30–60 M<sub>⊙<sub/> for the analyzed stars in N11 B, which are consistent with a scenario of sequential star formation. We note that the observed wind-momentum–luminosity relation is consistent with theoretical predictions. We detect nitrogen enrichment by up to a factor of seven in most of the stars. However, we do not find a correlation between nitrogen enrichment and projected rotational velocity. Finally, based on their spectral type, we estimate the total ionizing photons injected from the O-type stars in N11 B into its environment. We report log (Σ <i>Q<i/><sub>H<sub/>) = 50.5 ph s<sup>−1<sup/>, log (Σ <i>Q<i/><sub>He I<sub/>) = 49.6 ph s<sup>−1<sup/>, and log (Σ <i>Q<i/><sub>He II<sub/>)= 44.4 ph s<sup>−1<sup/>, consistent with the total ionizing budget in N11.","PeriodicalId":8571,"journal":{"name":"Astronomy & Astrophysics","volume":"20 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143665915","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-03-20DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/202453455
M. Piecka, S. Hutschenreuter, J. Alves
The diffuse interstellar band (DIB) at 6196 Å exhibits notable profile variations across the Milky Way. This study addresses three open issues: the unusual broadening of the DIB profile towards Upper Sco, the lack of profile variations towards stars near η Car, and the origin of the blueshift observed in Sco OB1. Using archival spectra of 453 early-type stars across the Galactic disk and in its proximity, we created a catalogue of the DIB's profile parameters. Our analysis identified Doppler-split components within the DIB profiles across most regions with no evidence for these splits being able to account for the observed broadening (∼23 km s−1) in Upper Sco or other regions such as Orion, Vela OB2, and Melotte 20 (α Per cluster). We propose that neither the ages of the studied stellar populations nor the distances between clusters and nearby clouds significantly contribute to the broadening. However, we detect a gradient in the full width at half maximum within the Sco-Cen and Orion regions, where broadening decreases with distance from the star-forming centres. This result points to a possible connection between the DIB broadening and star formation (likely via the impact of recent supernovae). Regarding the Carina Nebula, we confirm the lack of DIB profile variations in a small region near η Car, although an adjacent southern area exhibits significant variations, comparable to those in Upper Sco. In addition to the Carina Nebula, we find that the Rosette Nebula and NGC 6405 also show consistently narrow profiles (< 20 km s−1) with minimal deviations from the median over spatial scales of a few parsecs. Finally, regarding the origin of the blueshift observed in Sco OB1, we used a comparison with the Lagoon Nebula and argue that the most natural explanation is the presence of an unresolved kinematic component in the profile of the DIB, shifting the measured centre of the band.
{"title":"Survey of profile parameters of the 6196 Å diffuse interstellar band","authors":"M. Piecka, S. Hutschenreuter, J. Alves","doi":"10.1051/0004-6361/202453455","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202453455","url":null,"abstract":"The diffuse interstellar band (DIB) at 6196 Å exhibits notable profile variations across the Milky Way. This study addresses three open issues: the unusual broadening of the DIB profile towards Upper Sco, the lack of profile variations towards stars near <i>η<i/> Car, and the origin of the blueshift observed in Sco OB1. Using archival spectra of 453 early-type stars across the Galactic disk and in its proximity, we created a catalogue of the DIB's profile parameters. Our analysis identified Doppler-split components within the DIB profiles across most regions with no evidence for these splits being able to account for the observed broadening (∼23 km s<sup>−1<sup/>) in Upper Sco or other regions such as Orion, Vela OB2, and Melotte 20 (<i>α<i/> Per cluster). We propose that neither the ages of the studied stellar populations nor the distances between clusters and nearby clouds significantly contribute to the broadening. However, we detect a gradient in the full width at half maximum within the Sco-Cen and Orion regions, where broadening decreases with distance from the star-forming centres. This result points to a possible connection between the DIB broadening and star formation (likely via the impact of recent supernovae). Regarding the Carina Nebula, we confirm the lack of DIB profile variations in a small region near <i>η<i/> Car, although an adjacent southern area exhibits significant variations, comparable to those in Upper Sco. In addition to the Carina Nebula, we find that the Rosette Nebula and NGC 6405 also show consistently narrow profiles (< 20 km s<sup>−1<sup/>) with minimal deviations from the median over spatial scales of a few parsecs. Finally, regarding the origin of the blueshift observed in Sco OB1, we used a comparison with the Lagoon Nebula and argue that the most natural explanation is the presence of an unresolved kinematic component in the profile of the DIB, shifting the measured centre of the band.","PeriodicalId":8571,"journal":{"name":"Astronomy & Astrophysics","volume":"24 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666022","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-03-20DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/202453203
G. Di Gennaro, M. Brüggen, E. Moravec, L. Di Mascolo, R. J. van Weeren, G. Brunetti, R. Cassano, A. Botteon, E. Churazov, I. Khabibullin, N. Lyskova, F. de Gasperin, M. J. Hardcastle, H. J. A. Röttgering, T. Shimwell, R. Sunyaev, A. Stanford
Diffuse radio emission in galaxy clusters is a tracer of ultra-relativistic particles and μG-level magnetic fields, and is thought to be triggered by cluster merger events. In the distant Universe (i.e. z > 0.6), such sources have been observed only in a handful of systems, and their study is important to understand the evolution of large-scale magnetic fields over the cosmic time. Previous studies of nine Planck clusters up to z ∼ 0.9 suggest a fast amplification of cluster-scale magnetic fields, at least up to half of the current Universe’s age, and steep spectrum cluster scale emission, in line with particle re-acceleration due to turbulence. In this paper, we investigate the presence of diffuse radio emission in a larger sample of galaxy clusters reaching even higher redshifts (i.e. z ≳ 1). We selected clusters from the Massive and Distant Clusters of WISE Survey (MaDCoWS) with richness λ15 > 40 covering the area of the second data release of the LOFAR Two-Meter Sky Survey (LoTSS-DR2) at 144 MHz. These selected clusters are in the redshift range 0.78 − 1.53 (with a median value of 1.05). We detect the possible presence of diffuse radio emission, with the largest linear sizes of 350 − 500 kpc, in five out of the 56 clusters in our sample. If this diffuse radio emission is due to a radio halo, these radio sources lie on or above the scatter of the Pν − M500 radio halo correlations (at 150 MHz and 1.4 GHz) found at z < 0.6, depending on the mass assumed. We also find that these radio sources are at the limit of the detection by LoTSS, and therefore deeper observations are important for future studies.
{"title":"Limits and challenges of the detection of cluster-scale diffuse radio emission at high redshift","authors":"G. Di Gennaro, M. Brüggen, E. Moravec, L. Di Mascolo, R. J. van Weeren, G. Brunetti, R. Cassano, A. Botteon, E. Churazov, I. Khabibullin, N. Lyskova, F. de Gasperin, M. J. Hardcastle, H. J. A. Röttgering, T. Shimwell, R. Sunyaev, A. Stanford","doi":"10.1051/0004-6361/202453203","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202453203","url":null,"abstract":"Diffuse radio emission in galaxy clusters is a tracer of ultra-relativistic particles and <i>μ<i/>G-level magnetic fields, and is thought to be triggered by cluster merger events. In the distant Universe (i.e. <i>z<i/> > 0.6), such sources have been observed only in a handful of systems, and their study is important to understand the evolution of large-scale magnetic fields over the cosmic time. Previous studies of nine <i>Planck<i/> clusters up to <i>z<i/> ∼ 0.9 suggest a fast amplification of cluster-scale magnetic fields, at least up to half of the current Universe’s age, and steep spectrum cluster scale emission, in line with particle re-acceleration due to turbulence. In this paper, we investigate the presence of diffuse radio emission in a larger sample of galaxy clusters reaching even higher redshifts (i.e. <i>z<i/> ≳ 1). We selected clusters from the Massive and Distant Clusters of <i>WISE<i/> Survey (MaDCoWS) with richness <i>λ<i/><sub>15<sub/> > 40 covering the area of the second data release of the LOFAR Two-Meter Sky Survey (LoTSS-DR2) at 144 MHz. These selected clusters are in the redshift range 0.78 − 1.53 (with a median value of 1.05). We detect the possible presence of diffuse radio emission, with the largest linear sizes of 350 − 500 kpc, in five out of the 56 clusters in our sample. If this diffuse radio emission is due to a radio halo, these radio sources lie on or above the scatter of the <i>P<i/><sub><i>ν<i/><sub/> − <i>M<i/><sub>500<sub/> radio halo correlations (at 150 MHz and 1.4 GHz) found at <i>z<i/> < 0.6, depending on the mass assumed. We also find that these radio sources are at the limit of the detection by LoTSS, and therefore deeper observations are important for future studies.","PeriodicalId":8571,"journal":{"name":"Astronomy & Astrophysics","volume":"93 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666078","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-03-20DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/202453345
J. Vandersnickt, M. Fabry
Context. Massive contact binaries are both stellar-merger and gravitational-wave progenitors, but their evolution is still uncertain. An open problem in the population synthesis of massive contact binaries is the predicted mass ratio distribution. Current simulations evolve quickly to mass ratios close to unity, which is not supported by the sample of observed systems. It has been shown that modifying the near core mixing properties of massive stars can alter the evolution of contact binaries, but this has not been tested on a whole population.Aims. We implement a prescription of the convective core overshooting based on the molecular gradient. The goal of the implementation is to limit the rejuvenation efficiency of the accretor. We aim to investigate the effects of the reduced rejuvenation on the mass ratio distribution of massive contact binaries.Methods. We calculated a grid of 4896 models using the binary-evolution code MESA with our convective overshoot formulation, and we compared the simulations with the known observations of massive contact binaries.Results. We find that by limiting core rejuvenation through the convective core overshoot, the predicted mass ratio distribution shifts significantly to values away from unity. This improves the theoretical predictions of the mass ratios of massive contact binaries.Conclusions. The core rejuvenation of the components in massive contact binaries is a key parameter for their predicted mass ratio distribution. Establishing the rejuvenation efficiency within the contact binary population should therefore be possible. The sample size and uncertainties associated with the characterization of contact binaries, however, prevents us from doing so, and other methods like asteroseismology can place constraints on the rejuvenation process.
{"title":"Effects of limited core rejuvenation on the properties of massive contact binaries","authors":"J. Vandersnickt, M. Fabry","doi":"10.1051/0004-6361/202453345","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202453345","url":null,"abstract":"<i>Context.<i/> Massive contact binaries are both stellar-merger and gravitational-wave progenitors, but their evolution is still uncertain. An open problem in the population synthesis of massive contact binaries is the predicted mass ratio distribution. Current simulations evolve quickly to mass ratios close to unity, which is not supported by the sample of observed systems. It has been shown that modifying the near core mixing properties of massive stars can alter the evolution of contact binaries, but this has not been tested on a whole population.<i>Aims.<i/> We implement a prescription of the convective core overshooting based on the molecular gradient. The goal of the implementation is to limit the rejuvenation efficiency of the accretor. We aim to investigate the effects of the reduced rejuvenation on the mass ratio distribution of massive contact binaries.<i>Methods.<i/> We calculated a grid of 4896 models using the binary-evolution code MESA with our convective overshoot formulation, and we compared the simulations with the known observations of massive contact binaries.<i>Results.<i/> We find that by limiting core rejuvenation through the convective core overshoot, the predicted mass ratio distribution shifts significantly to values away from unity. This improves the theoretical predictions of the mass ratios of massive contact binaries.<i>Conclusions.<i/> The core rejuvenation of the components in massive contact binaries is a key parameter for their predicted mass ratio distribution. Establishing the rejuvenation efficiency within the contact binary population should therefore be possible. The sample size and uncertainties associated with the characterization of contact binaries, however, prevents us from doing so, and other methods like asteroseismology can place constraints on the rejuvenation process.","PeriodicalId":8571,"journal":{"name":"Astronomy & Astrophysics","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666081","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-03-20DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/202452374
Saimurali Kolupuri, Roberto Decarli, Roberto Neri, Pierre Cox, Carl Ferkinhoff, Frank Bertoldi, Axel Weiss, Bram P. Venemans, Dominik A. Riechers, Emanuele Paolo Farina, Fabian Walter
We present [NII] 205 μm fine structure line observations of three submillimeter galaxies (SMGs) and three quasar host galaxies (QSOs) at 4 ≲ z ≲ 6 using the Institut de radioastronomie millimétrique (IRAM) interferometer. The [NII] emission is detected in three sources, and we report detections of the underlying dust continuum emission in all sources. The observed [NII]-to-infrared luminosity ratio spans at least 0.5 dex for our sources. Comparing our estimates with sources detected in the [NII] 205 μm at similar redshifts shows that the overall [NII]-to-IR luminosity ratio spans over 1 dex in magnitude from L[NII]/LIR ∼ 10−4–10−5 and follows the trend of the so-called [NII] fine structure line deficit observed in (ultra)-luminous IR galaxies in the local Universe. The [CII]-to-[NII] luminosity ratio is greater than ten for most of our sources, indicating that the bulk of the [CII] 158 μm line emission (f([CII]PDR) > 75%) arises from the neutral medium. From our analysis, we do not find significant differences in the [NII] 205 μm emission and the respective ratios between SMGs and QSOs, suggesting a negligible contribution to the boosting of [NII] 205 μm emission due to the active galactic nucleus (AGN) photoionization. Future investigations involving other fine structure lines and optical diagnostics will provide further insight into a suite of ionized medium properties and reveal the diversity between AGN and non-AGN environments.
{"title":"The [NII] 205 μm line emission from high-z submillimeter galaxies and quasar host galaxies","authors":"Saimurali Kolupuri, Roberto Decarli, Roberto Neri, Pierre Cox, Carl Ferkinhoff, Frank Bertoldi, Axel Weiss, Bram P. Venemans, Dominik A. Riechers, Emanuele Paolo Farina, Fabian Walter","doi":"10.1051/0004-6361/202452374","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202452374","url":null,"abstract":"We present [NII] 205 μm fine structure line observations of three submillimeter galaxies (SMGs) and three quasar host galaxies (QSOs) at 4 ≲ <i>z<i/> ≲ 6 using the Institut de radioastronomie millimétrique (IRAM) interferometer. The [NII] emission is detected in three sources, and we report detections of the underlying dust continuum emission in all sources. The observed [NII]-to-infrared luminosity ratio spans at least 0.5 dex for our sources. Comparing our estimates with sources detected in the [NII] 205 μm at similar redshifts shows that the overall [NII]-to-IR luminosity ratio spans over 1 dex in magnitude from <i>L<i/><sub>[NII]<sub/>/<i>L<i/><sub>IR<sub/> ∼ 10<sup>−4<sup/>–10<sup>−5<sup/> and follows the trend of the so-called [NII] fine structure line deficit observed in (ultra)-luminous IR galaxies in the local Universe. The [CII]-to-[NII] luminosity ratio is greater than ten for most of our sources, indicating that the bulk of the [CII] 158 μm line emission (<i>f<i/>([CII]<sup>PDR<sup/>) > 75%) arises from the neutral medium. From our analysis, we do not find significant differences in the [NII] 205 μm emission and the respective ratios between SMGs and QSOs, suggesting a negligible contribution to the boosting of [NII] 205 μm emission due to the active galactic nucleus (AGN) photoionization. Future investigations involving other fine structure lines and optical diagnostics will provide further insight into a suite of ionized medium properties and reveal the diversity between AGN and non-AGN environments.","PeriodicalId":8571,"journal":{"name":"Astronomy & Astrophysics","volume":"15 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666082","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-03-19DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/202452749
H. Mitani, R. Nakatani, R. Kuiper
Extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) driven atmospheric escape is a key process in the atmospheric evolution of close-in exoplanets. In many evolutionary models, an energy-limited mass-loss rate with a constant efficiency (typically ∼10%) is assumed for calculating the mass-loss rate. However, hydrodynamic simulations have demonstrated that this efficiency depends on various stellar and planetary parameters. Comprehending the underlying physics of the efficiency is essential for understanding planetary atmospheric evolution and recent observations of the upper atmosphere of close-in exoplanets. We introduce relevant temperatures and timescales derived from physical principles to elucidate the mass-loss process. Our analytical mass-loss model is based on phenomenology and consistent across a range of planetary parameters. We compared our mass-loss efficiency with that of radiation hydrodynamic simulations, finding that our model can predict efficiency in both energy-limited and recombination-limited regimes. We further applied our model to exoplanets observed with hydrogen absorption (Lyα and Hα). Our findings suggest that Lyα absorption is detectable in planets subjected to intermediate EUV flux; under these conditions, the escaping outflow is insufficient in low-EUV environments, while the photoionization timescale remains short in high EUV ranges. Conversely, Hα absorption is detectable under high-EUV-flux conditions, facilitated by the intense Lyα flux exciting hydrogen atoms. According to our model, the non-detection of neutral hydrogen can be explained by a low mass-loss rate and is not necessarily due to stellar wind confinement or the absence of a hydrogen-dominated atmosphere in many cases. This model can help identify future observational targets and explicates the unusual absorption detection/non-detection patterns observed in recent studies.
{"title":"Physically motivated analytic model of energy efficiency for extreme-ultraviolet-driven atmospheric escape of close-in exoplanets","authors":"H. Mitani, R. Nakatani, R. Kuiper","doi":"10.1051/0004-6361/202452749","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202452749","url":null,"abstract":"Extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) driven atmospheric escape is a key process in the atmospheric evolution of close-in exoplanets. In many evolutionary models, an energy-limited mass-loss rate with a constant efficiency (typically ∼10%) is assumed for calculating the mass-loss rate. However, hydrodynamic simulations have demonstrated that this efficiency depends on various stellar and planetary parameters. Comprehending the underlying physics of the efficiency is essential for understanding planetary atmospheric evolution and recent observations of the upper atmosphere of close-in exoplanets. We introduce relevant temperatures and timescales derived from physical principles to elucidate the mass-loss process. Our analytical mass-loss model is based on phenomenology and consistent across a range of planetary parameters. We compared our mass-loss efficiency with that of radiation hydrodynamic simulations, finding that our model can predict efficiency in both energy-limited and recombination-limited regimes. We further applied our model to exoplanets observed with hydrogen absorption (Lyα and Hα). Our findings suggest that Lyα absorption is detectable in planets subjected to intermediate EUV flux; under these conditions, the escaping outflow is insufficient in low-EUV environments, while the photoionization timescale remains short in high EUV ranges. Conversely, Hα absorption is detectable under high-EUV-flux conditions, facilitated by the intense Lyα flux exciting hydrogen atoms. According to our model, the non-detection of neutral hydrogen can be explained by a low mass-loss rate and is not necessarily due to stellar wind confinement or the absence of a hydrogen-dominated atmosphere in many cases. This model can help identify future observational targets and explicates the unusual absorption detection/non-detection patterns observed in recent studies.","PeriodicalId":8571,"journal":{"name":"Astronomy & Astrophysics","volume":"56 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-03-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143661296","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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