Experimental psychology最新文献

The Somatic Marker Hypothesis (SHM) proposes that human decision-making under uncertainty is advantageously guided by affective signals before developing awareness of which courses of action are better. However, this claim has been questioned due to the limitations of the methods used to measure awareness, with alternative measures yielding conflicting results. To address this issue, we apply metacognitive sensitivity, a reliable method based on confidence ratings that outperform previous awareness measures, in an online nonclinical sample (N = 44) to assess awareness in the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). Using this approach, we found that awareness and advantageous decision-making are not independent processes; an increase in metacognitive sensitivity strongly predicted an improvement in task performance in nearly all blocks of the task. A lab-based preregistered replication (N = 47) confirmed these findings. Interestingly, some participants demonstrated awareness without advantageous decision-making, suggesting that awareness is a necessary - but not sufficient - condition for optimal performance. Overall, this study highlights the challenges of measuring awareness in the IGT and introduces a novel alternative method that questions a key postulate of the SMH.

The current study employed the temporal discounting task to assess differences in intertemporal decision-making between hearing-impaired and normal children across self-oriented and other-oriented choices. The results showed that: (1) no significant difference was observed between hearing-impaired and normal children when making intertemporal choices for themselves; (2) when decisions were made for close family, hearing-impaired children exhibited a significantly higher preference for immediate rewards compared to normal children; (3) conversely, when making choices for strangers, no significant difference was noted in the immediate reward selection rates between hearing-impaired and normal children. Extant research corroborates that normal children display greater patience in intertemporal decision-making for close family compared to hearing-impaired children. The construal level theory and responsibility aversion hypothesis were expand.

Prior familiarity has been shown to increase memory for faces, but different effects emerge depending on whether the face is experimentally or pre-experimentally familiar to the observer. Across two experiments, we compared the effect of experimental and pre-experimental familiarity on recognition and source memory. Pre-experimentally familiar faces were nameable US celebrities, and unfamiliar faces were unnamable European celebrities. Within both sets, faces could be made experimentally familiar via repetition during the learning phase (studied once or thrice). At test, all studied identities were represented by novel (i.e., not studied) photos, allowing us to test memory for the identity rather than the picture. In Experiment 1, repeated presentations of both face types increased recognition rates, but accuracy was generally higher for pre-experimentally familiar faces. Experiment 2 expanded on these findings by pairing the faces with background locations and manipulating associative strength of the face-location pairs. Although pre-experimentally familiar faces were again recognized more often, they were also more likely to be falsely labeled as "old" when paired with new background locations. These results have implications for basic and applied studies examining familiar versus unfamiliar face recognition.

In memory tasks, items read aloud are better remembered than their silently read counterparts. This production effect is often interpreted by assuming a distinctiveness benefit for produced items, but whether this benefit also comes at a cost remains up for debate. In recall tasks, when pure lists are used in which all items are produced or read silently, studies have shown a better recall of produced items at the last serial positions, but a lower recall at the first positions. This cost of production has been interpreted by assuming that production interferes with rehearsal. However, in recognition tasks, models typically assume that the distinctiveness benefit for produced items comes at no cost. Across four experiments, participants completed a 2AFC recognition test, an old-new recognition test or an immediate serial recall test. List length was also manipulated. Results show that although the production effect is larger at the last serial positions, the cross-over interaction between the production effect and serial position observed in recall was not present in recognition. These results suggest that task-related differences in the production effect may inform us about the modulation of basic memory processes by task demands.

Although the production effect is well-established in undergraduates, limited research has examined this effect in children. The primary goal of the current study was to replicate the production effect in preschoolers. In Experiment 1, one group studied all items silently or aloud (pure lists) and another group studied half of the items silently and said half aloud (mixed lists). At recall, the production effect was present in mixed lists but not in pure lists. The results suggest that the effect in mixed lists was due to both a benefit for produced items and a cost to silent items. Experiments 2 and 3 examined whether preschoolers were aware of the benefits of production. The results were mixed and indicate that task difficulty may impact whether production benefits memory. When the metacognitive task was easier (Experiment 3), the production effect replicated. Preschoolers' judgments indicated they believe that production leads to better memory, but they were overconfident. The current results demonstrate that (1) young children can use production to improve memory when instructed, even before they spontaneously use it, (2) they believe production can benefit memory, and (3) task difficulty may account for discrepancies in prior work examining the production effect in children.

The item-based directed-forgetting effect is explained as a difference in how strongly people encode remember-cued over forget-cued targets. In contrast, the production effect is typically explained as a difference in the distinctiveness of the memory of produced over unproduced targets. The procedural alignment of the two effects - directing participants to remember or forget, produce or not - coupled with their different theoretical explanations (i.e., strength vs. distinctiveness) presents an opportunity to investigate common versus differential effects of elaborative encoding. This study aims to bridge the gap between these two well-established phenomena by comparing the differences in directed forgetting and the production effect in the context of recognition. Mixed- and pure-list designs were utilized to provide an index of each of these mechanisms in both procedures. Along with a standard production effect and directed forgetting effect in the mixed-list conditions, we found evidence for strength primarily driving results in both procedures. Results are explained using a global matching model of recognition memory, MINERVA 2, by assuming varying levels of encoding strength in relation to task demands. Critically, we obtain the best fit using a strength mechanism over a combined strength and distinctiveness mechanism for our data.

The Production Effect refers to a memory advantage for items learned by reading aloud relative to items learned by silent reading. The effect is commonly attributed to encoding distinctiveness; the act of production makes aloud items distinct from the silent items. Distinctiveness is considered useful only on conscious memory tests but is irrelevant on implicit tests. Indeed, hitherto, the production effect was observed only on explicit tests of memory but not on the implicit test of speeded reading. In the current study, in two experiments, participants learned words by aloud or silent reading and performed different implicit memory tests. In the first experiment, a modified recognition test using the process dissociation procedure was employed, revealing a robust production effect in the inclusion (conscious) - but not the exclusion (automatic) - condition. In the second experiment, no production effect was found in a simple implicit task (lexical decision) but was documented in two complex implicit tasks (word stem completion and category exemplar generation). These results show that vocal production can enhance some forms of implicit memory. This may result from mechanisms other than distinctiveness contributing to the production effect or the involvement of explicit memory processes (intrusions) in (some) implicit memory tests.

Escalation of commitment is an important decision problem that occurs across different decision contexts. Recognizing that escalation involves one's effort to achieve some form of a goal, researchers have attempted to understand escalation of commitment as a goal-pursuing activity. Prior research works have suggested that escalation situations consist of (1) an initial goal setting phase and (2) an escalation decision-making phase and have investigated how goal difficulty and goal specificity influence escalation decisions. However, they have neglected the potential role of the goal source in escalation situations. In this study, we aim to advance our understanding of escalation of commitment by examining the relationship between goal source and escalation. Specifically, by drawing on distinct characteristics of escalation situations, we conceptualize a new form of goal source, namely inherited goals, and examine its effect on escalation of commitment compared with self-set and assigned goals that are well-known goal sources in goal-setting theory (GST). We conducted two laboratory experiments and found evidence suggesting that individuals who had inherited goals (i.e., those who did not take part in initial goal setting and did not invest effort in pursuing the previous course of action) are less likely to fall into the escalation trap.

Research on automatic evaluative responses to faces varying in emotional expression and ethnicity has yielded conflicting results. Some paradigms, like the Approach/Avoidance task, demonstrated interactive evaluation. In contrast, recent studies using the Evaluative Priming Task (EPT) yielded independent effects of expression and ethnicity. One key difference between these paradigms is the task relevance of the faces. In the EPT faces served solely as primes without direct relevance to the task. To examine whether increased task relevance could engender interactive processing in the EPT, we utilized a modified version of the "bona fide pipeline" EPT. In this adaptation, participants categorized the valence of target words succeeding prime faces followed by probe faces. Participants then judged whether the prime and probe faces depicted the same person, thereby adding task relevance to the prime faces. Experiment 1 revealed independent priming effects of emotion and ethnicity. Since error data and inverse efficiency scores provided evidence for an interactive evaluation, we replicated Experiment 1 using a sequential Bayes testing strategy. Experiment 2 confirmed that the effects of emotion and ethnicity remain independent, indicating that increased task relevance did not yield the integrated processing of emotion and ethnicity as initially hypothesized.