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Bilingualism Influences How Articulation Enhances Verbal Encoding. 双语影响发音如何增强言语编码
IF 1.1 4区 心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL Pub Date : 2024-03-01 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000621
Rachel M Brown, Tanja C Roembke

Learning information may benefit from movement: Items that are spoken aloud are more accurately remembered than items that are silently read (the production effect). Candidate mechanisms for this phenomenon suggest that speaking may enrich or improve the feature content of memory traces, yet research suggests that prior language skill also plays a role. Recent work showed a larger production effect in bilinguals for words in their second language (L2) compared to their first language (L1), potentially suggesting that bilinguals engage different or additional linguistic features when speaking L2 compared to L1 words. The current study examined whether the increased L2 production effect reduces for L2 and L1 pseudowords, which may similarly engage mainly phonological features. German (L1)-English (L2) bilinguals first read (out loud or silently) and subsequently recognized German or English words or pseudowords following German or English phonology. The production effect increased for L2 compared to L1 items and for words compared to pseudowords. Modest evidence suggested L2-L1 similarity in production effect scores for pseudowords, but different L2-L1 scores for words. Integrating feature models of memory with models of bilingual language production, we propose that speaking an L2 may engage more extensive and diverse linguistic features than an L1.

学习信息可能得益于动作:大声朗读的项目比默读的项目记忆更准确(生产效应)。这一现象的候选机制表明,说话可能会丰富或改善记忆痕迹的特征内容,但研究表明,先前的语言技能也起着作用。最近的研究表明,与第一语言(L1)相比,双语者在说第二语言(L2)单词时会产生更大的生成效应,这可能表明双语者在说第二语言(L2)单词时会使用与第一语言(L1)单词不同或额外的语言特点。本研究考察了 L2 和 L1 假词的 L2 产词量增加效应是否会降低,因为 L2 和 L1 假词可能同样主要涉及语音特征。德语(L1)-英语(L2)二语者首先朗读(大声或默读),然后根据德语或英语语音识别德语或英语单词或假词。与 L1 项目相比,L2 项目的生产效应增加;与假词相比,单词的生产效应增加。少量证据表明,假词的产生效果得分具有 L2-L1 相似性,但单词的 L2-L1 分数却不同。通过将记忆特征模型与二语语言生产模型相结合,我们提出,与 L1 相比,说 L2 可能会涉及更广泛、更多样的语言特征。
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引用次数: 0
Which Encoding Techniques Facilitate Comprehension? 哪些编码技术有助于理解?
IF 1.1 4区 心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL Pub Date : 2024-03-01 Epub Date: 2024-09-24 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000620
Sophia H N Tran, Myra A Fernandes

Previous work suggests that similar cognitive processes contribute to memory and comprehension. This is unsurprising as both begin with a common process: encoding. Despite this, the investigation of techniques that benefit memory and comprehension has proceeded separately. In the current study, we compared the robust memory techniques of production and drawing to a similarly effective comprehension strategy known as paraphrasing. Depending on the group, participants were asked to either engage in one of the encoding types (read aloud, draw, or paraphrase) or to silently read 20 term-definition pairs (randomly intermixed and counterbalanced). The encoding techniques of drawing and paraphrasing resulted in better performance on a multiple-choice test of concept comprehension, relative to silently reading. By contrast, reading aloud at encoding did not lead to any benefit relative to silently reading. The results suggest that techniques that invoke transformation of the to-be-remembered text into another format, be it into a picture (drawing) or personally relevant summary (paraphrasing), are particularly effective at improving comprehension. By contrast, encoding techniques that mainly provide a perceptual repetition (production and silent reading) are less effective.

以往的研究表明,记忆和理解的认知过程相似。这并不奇怪,因为两者都始于一个共同的过程:编码。尽管如此,对有利于记忆和理解的技巧的研究一直是分开进行的。在当前的研究中,我们将制作和绘制的强大记忆技巧与一种类似的有效理解策略--转述--进行了比较。根据组别不同,参与者被要求参与其中一种编码类型(朗读、画图或意译),或默读 20 个词义对(随机混合并平衡)。相对于默读,画图和转述的编码技巧在概念理解的多项选择测试中取得了更好的成绩。相比之下,在编码时朗读与默读相比没有任何益处。研究结果表明,将需要记忆的文本转换成另一种形式的方法,无论是图片(绘画)还是个人相关的摘要(转述),在提高理解能力方面都特别有效。相比之下,主要提供感知重复的编码技术(制作和默读)效果较差。
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引用次数: 0
Does the Effect of Production Influence Memory for Background Context? 制作效果会影响对背景语境的记忆吗?
IF 1.1 4区 心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL Pub Date : 2024-03-01 Epub Date: 2024-09-24 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000618
Victoria A J Kavanagh, Kathleen L Hourihan, William E Hockley

The current study examined whether the benefit of mixed-list production could extend to memory for background contexts using word-background context pairs. Participants studied words presented on background images; words were read aloud or silently. In Experiment 1a, half of the studied items were tested on their studied background image and half were tested on a new image using old-new recognition. Although a production effect in word recognition was observed, context reinstatement had no effect on sensitivity and only a marginal effect on hit rates; it did not interact with production. In Experiment 1b, whether participants encoded the backgrounds and whether that encoding was affected by production was tested using separate recognition tests. A production effect was found in word recognition, but there was no effect in image recognition. Experiment 2 used a cued-recall test, with the studied background images as the cues to directly test whether associations were formed between words and backgrounds at study. A production effect was found but did not interact with the presence of cues during recall. Both the benefit of production and the benefit of context reinstatement appear to be independent of one another, with production not aiding memory for the associations between items nor the context.

本研究利用单词-背景语境对,考察了混合列表制作的益处是否可以扩展到背景语境记忆。受试者学习的是在背景图像上呈现的单词;单词被朗读或默读。在实验 1a 中,一半的学习项目在其学习过的背景图像上进行测试,另一半则在新的图像上进行新旧识别测试。虽然在单词识别中观察到了生产效应,但语境恢复对敏感度没有影响,对命中率也只有微弱的影响;它与生产效应没有相互作用。在实验 1b 中,参与者是否对背景进行了编码,以及这种编码是否会受到制作的影响,都通过单独的识别测试进行了检验。在单词识别中发现了制作效应,但在图像识别中没有发现任何效应。实验 2 采用了提示-回忆测试,以学习过的背景图片作为提示,直接测试学习时是否在词语和背景之间形成了联想。结果发现了生成效应,但在回忆过程中,生成效应与提示效应并不相互影响。制作的益处和背景恢复的益处似乎是相互独立的,制作并不能帮助记忆项目之间的关联,也不能帮助记忆背景。
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引用次数: 0
The Effects of Mind-Wandering, Cognitive Load, and Task Engagement on Working Memory Performance in Remote Online Experiments. 在远程在线实验中,思维游离、认知负荷和任务参与对工作记忆表现的影响。
IF 1.3 4区 心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL Pub Date : 2024-01-30 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000599
Kelly Cotton, Joshua Sandry, Timothy J Ricker

Recent changes in environments from in-person to remote present several issues for work, education, and research, particularly related to cognitive performance. Increased distraction in remote environments may lead to increases in mind-wandering and disengagement with tasks at hand, whether virtual meetings, online lectures, or psychological experiments. The present study investigated mind-wandering and multitasking effects during working memory tasks in remote and in-person environments. In two experiments, participants completed a working memory task with varied cognitive load during a secondary task. After each working memory trial, participants reported their mind-wandering during that trial. Some participants completed the procedures in-person, while others completed the procedures remotely. Overall, remote participants reported significantly more mind-wandering and poorer secondary task performance than in-person participants, but this pattern was not reflected in working memory accuracy. Both groups exhibited similar multitasking effects on performance. Additional analyses found that for remote participants, task engagement better predicted working memory performance than either cognitive load or mind-wandering rates but did not indicate a tradeoff in resources between tasks. Together, these results demonstrate the importance of considering multiple metrics when assessing performance and illustrate that making assumptions about the equivalence of remote and in-person work is a risky proposition.

最近,从面对面环境到远程环境的变化给工作、教育和研究带来了一些问题,尤其是与认知能力有关的问题。无论是虚拟会议、在线讲座还是心理实验,远程环境中分心的情况增多可能会导致思维游离和脱离手头任务的情况增加。本研究调查了在远程和面对面环境中执行工作记忆任务时的思维游离和多任务处理效应。在两项实验中,参与者在完成一项工作记忆任务的同时,还要完成一项辅助任务。在每次工作记忆试验后,参与者都会报告他们在该试验中的思维游离情况。一些参与者亲自完成了这些程序,而另一些参与者则是远程完成的。总体而言,远程参与者的思维游离程度明显高于亲临现场的参与者,其次要任务表现也较差,但这种模式并没有反映在工作记忆的准确性上。两组受试者都表现出了类似的多任务处理对成绩的影响。其他分析发现,对于远程参与者来说,任务参与比认知负荷或思维游离率更能预测工作记忆的表现,但并不表明任务之间的资源权衡。这些结果共同证明了在评估绩效时考虑多种指标的重要性,并说明假设远程工作与现场工作等同是有风险的。
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引用次数: 0
Are There Age-Related Differences in Effects of Positive and Negative Emotions in Arithmetic? 算术中积极情绪和消极情绪的影响是否存在与年龄相关的差异?
IF 1.3 4区 心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL Pub Date : 2024-01-30 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000595
Camille Lallement, Patrick Lemaire

We investigated effects of emotions on arithmetic problem-solving and age-related differences in these effects. Young and older adults verified addition problems displayed superimposed on emotionally negative, positive, or neutral pictures. Participants obtained poorer performance in emotion than in neutral conditions, with stronger interference by negative than positive emotions. Also, participants were more impaired by negative emotions while solving true problems than false problems, whereas they were influenced by positive emotions similarly on true and false problems. Interestingly, effects of both positive and negative emotions were comparable in young and older adults. These findings have important implications for further understanding how negative and positive emotions influence arithmetic problem-solving.

我们研究了情绪对算术问题解决的影响以及这些影响中与年龄相关的差异。年轻和年长的成年人验证了叠加在情绪消极、积极或中性图片上的加法问题。与中性条件相比,受试者在情绪条件下的成绩较差,消极情绪的干扰比积极情绪的干扰更强。此外,在解决真实问题时,受试者受消极情绪的影响比解决虚假问题时更大,而在解决真实问题和虚假问题时,受试者受积极情绪的影响相似。有趣的是,积极情绪和消极情绪对年轻人和老年人的影响相当。这些发现对于进一步了解消极和积极情绪如何影响算术问题的解决具有重要意义。
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引用次数: 0
One Link to Link Them All. 一个链接串起所有链接
IF 1.3 4区 心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL Pub Date : 2024-01-30 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000597
Mrudula Arunkumar, Klaus Rothermund, Carina G Giesen

A conditioned response to a stimulus can be transferred to an associated stimulus, as seen in sensory preconditioning. In this research paper, we aimed to explore this phenomenon using a stimulus-response contingency learning paradigm using voluntary actions as responses. We conducted two preregistered experiments that explored whether a learned response can be indirectly activated by a stimulus (S1) that was never directly paired with the response itself. Importantly, S1 was previously associated with another stimulus (S2) that was then directly and contingently paired with a response (S2-R contingency). In Experiment 1a, an indirect activation of acquired stimulus-response contingencies was present for audiovisual stimulus pairs wherein the stimulus association resembled a vocabulary learning setup. This result was replicated in Experiment 1b. Additionally, we found that the effect is moderated by having conscious awareness of the S1-S2 association and the S2-R contingency. By demonstrating indirect activation effects for voluntary actions, our findings show that principles of Pavlovian conditioning like sensory preconditioning also apply to contingency learning of stimulus-response relations for operant behavior.

对某种刺激的条件反射可以转移到相关的刺激上,这在感官先决条件中可以看到。在这篇研究论文中,我们旨在通过一个以自愿动作为反应的刺激-反应或然学习范式来探索这一现象。我们进行了两项预先登记的实验,以探索学习到的反应是否能被从未与反应本身直接配对的刺激(S1)间接激活。重要的是,S1 之前与另一个刺激物(S2)相关联,而 S2 之后直接与一个反应(S2-R 或然)配对。在实验 1a 中,对于视听刺激配对,刺激联想类似于词汇学习设置,存在间接激活后天刺激-反应或然性的现象。实验 1b 复制了这一结果。此外,我们还发现,有意识地意识到 S1-S2 关联和 S2-R 或然率会调节这种效应。通过证明自愿行为的间接激活效应,我们的研究结果表明,巴甫洛夫条件反射的原理(如感觉预设)也适用于操作行为的刺激-反应关系的或然学习。
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引用次数: 0
Singing Does Not Necessarily Improve Memory More Than Reading Aloud. 唱歌并不一定比朗读更能提高记忆力。
IF 1.1 4区 心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL Pub Date : 2024-01-01 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000614
Jedidiah W Whitridge, Mark J Huff, Jason D Ozubko, Paul C Bürkner, Chelsea D Lahey, Jonathan M Fawcett

The production effect refers to the finding that words read aloud are better remembered than words read silently. This finding is typically attributed to the presence of additional sensorimotor features appended to the memory trace by the act of reading aloud, which are not present for items read silently. Supporting this perspective, the production effect tends to be larger for singing (the singing superiority effect) than reading aloud, possibly due to the inclusion of further sensorimotor features (e.g., more pronounced tone). However, the singing superiority effect has not always replicated. Across four experiments, we demonstrate a production effect for items read aloud but observe a singing superiority effect only when items are tested in the same color in which they were studied (with foils randomized to color). A series of meta-analytic models revealed the singing superiority effect to be smaller than previously thought and to emerge only when test items are presented in the same color in which they were studied. This outcome is inconsistent with common distinctiveness-based theoretical accounts.

朗读效果是指朗读的单词比默读的单词记忆效果更好。这一发现通常被认为是由于朗读行为在记忆痕迹中附加了额外的感觉运动特征,而默读项目则没有这些特征。与这一观点相印证的是,与朗读相比,歌唱的生成效应(歌唱优势效应)往往更大,这可能是由于朗读中包含了更多的感觉运动特征(如更明显的音调)。然而,歌唱优势效应并不总能得到验证。在四项实验中,我们证明了朗读项目的生产效应,但只有在用与研究项目相同的颜色进行测试时(箔随机分配颜色),才能观察到歌唱优势效应。一系列元分析模型显示,歌唱优势效应比之前认为的要小,而且只有当测试项目以与研究项目相同的颜色呈现时,歌唱优势效应才会出现。这一结果与常见的基于独特性的理论说法不一致。
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引用次数: 0
The Production Effect Becomes Spatial. 生产效应成为空间效应。
IF 1.1 4区 心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL Pub Date : 2024-01-01 Epub Date: 2024-07-02 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000609
Jean Saint-Aubin, Marie Poirier, James M Yearsley, Dominic Guitard

In the verbal domain, it is well established that words read aloud are better remembered than their silently read counterparts. It has been hypothesized that this production effect stems from the addition of distinctive features, with the caveat that the processing that generates added features interferes with rehearsal. Here, we tested the idea that a similar trade-off is found in the visuospatial domain. In all experiments, a short series of single dots sequentially appeared at various locations on a screen. Participants produced the items by clicking on them at presentation, watched the items appear quietly, or produced an irrelevant click after each item to better even out rehearsal opportunities between produced and control conditions. In Experiment 1, the dots appeared within a visible grid and an order reconstruction task was used. Experiment 2 also called upon reconstruction, but with the grid removed. In Experiments 3, a recall task was used. The results show that producing items hindered performance compared to the control condition. Conversely, production improved performance compared to the control condition where rehearsal was hindered. This is the first demonstration of a visuospatial production effect. The key findings were successfully modeled by the Revised Feature Model (RFM).

在言语领域,朗读的单词比默读的单词记忆效果更好,这一点已得到公认。有一种假设认为,这种产生效果源于增加了独特的特征,但需要注意的是,产生增加特征的加工过程会干扰排练。在这里,我们测试了在视觉空间领域是否存在类似的权衡。在所有实验中,一系列短小的单点依次出现在屏幕的不同位置。参与者在出现时通过点击这些点来制作这些项目,或者静静地观看这些项目的出现,或者在每个项目出现后进行无关的点击,以更好地平衡制作条件和对照条件之间的演练机会。在实验 1 中,点出现在一个可见的网格中,并使用了顺序重构任务。实验 2 也要求进行重构,但去掉了网格。实验 3 采用的是回忆任务。实验结果表明,与对照组相比,制作项目会阻碍学习成绩的提高。相反,与排练受阻的对照条件相比,制作项目提高了成绩。这是首次证明视觉空间制作效应。主要研究结果已成功地用修订特征模型(RFM)进行建模。
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引用次数: 0
Productions Need Not Match Study Items to Confer a Production Advantage, But It Helps. 产品不一定要与研究项目相匹配才能获得生产优势,但它会有所帮助。
IF 1.1 4区 心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL Pub Date : 2024-01-01 Epub Date: 2024-03-19 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000600
Megan O Kelly, Xinyi Lu, Tyler M Ensor, Colin M MacLeod, Evan F Risko

The production effect is the finding that, relative to silent reading, producing information at study (e.g., reading aloud) leads to a benefit in memory. In most studies of this effect, individuals are presented with a set of unique items, and they produce a subset of these items (e.g., they are presented with the to-be-remembered target item TABLE and produce table) such that the production is both unique and representative of the target. Across two preregistered experiments, we examined the influence of a production that is unique but that does not match the target (e.g., producing fence to the target TABLE, producing car to the target TREE, and so on). This kind of production also yielded a significant effect-the mismatching production effect-although it was smaller than the standard production effect (i.e., when productions are both unique and representative of their targets) and was detectable only when targets with standard productions were included in the same study phase (i.e., when the type of production was manipulated within participant). We suggest that target-production matching is an important precursor to the production effect and that the kind of production that brings about a benefit depends on the other productions that are present.

制作效应是指相对于默读而言,在学习中制作信息(如朗读)会使记忆受益。在对这一效应的大多数研究中,研究人员会看到一组独特的项目,然后他们会制作出这些项目的一个子集(例如,他们会看到要记忆的目标项目 TABLE 并制作出表格),这样制作出来的信息既独特又能代表目标项目。在两个预先登记的实验中,我们考察了独特但与目标不匹配的发音(例如,根据目标 TABLE 生成栅栏,根据目标 TREE 生成汽车,等等)所产生的影响。这种制作也产生了显著的效应--不匹配制作效应--尽管它小于标准制作效应(即当制作既独特又能代表其目标时),而且只有当标准制作的目标被包含在同一研究阶段时(即当制作类型在被试内部被操纵时)才能被检测到。我们认为,目标-语篇匹配是语篇效应的一个重要前兆,而带来益处的语篇类型取决于其他语篇。
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引用次数: 0
A Feature-Space Theory of the Production Effect in Recognition. 识别中生产效应的特征空间理论
IF 1.1 4区 心理学 Q4 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL Pub Date : 2024-01-01 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000611
Jeremy B Caplan, Dominic Guitard

Mathematical models explaining production effects assume that production leads to the encoding of additional features, such as phonological ones. This improves memory with a combination of encoding strength and feature distinctiveness, implementing aspects of propositional theories. However, it is not clear why production differs from other manipulations such as study time and spaced repetition, which are also thought to influence strength. Here we extend attentional subsetting theory and propose an explanation based on the dimensionality of feature spaces. Specifically, we suggest phonological features are drawn from a compact feature space. Deeper features are sparsely subselected from a larger subspace. Algebraic and numerical solutions shed light on several findings, including the dependency of production effects on how other list items are encoded (differing from other strength factors) and the production advantage even for homophones. This places production within a continuum of strength-like manipulations that differ in terms of the feature subspaces they operate upon and leads to novel predictions based on direct manipulations of feature-space properties.

解释生产效应的数学模型假定,生产会导致额外特征(如语音特征)的编码。这就结合了编码强度和特征显著性,从而改善了记忆,实现了命题理论的各个方面。然而,目前还不清楚为什么 "制作 "与学习时间和间隔重复等也被认为会影响强度的其他操作有所不同。在此,我们扩展了注意子集理论,并提出了基于特征空间维度的解释。具体来说,我们认为语音特征来自一个紧凑的特征空间。更深层次的特征则是从更大的子空间中稀疏地子选择出来的。代数和数值解决方案揭示了一些发现,包括生产效应对其他列表项目编码方式的依赖性(不同于其他强度因素),以及即使是同音字也具有生产优势。这就将生产置于一个类似强度操作的连续统一体中,而这些操作因所操作的特征子空间而异,并在直接操作特征空间属性的基础上得出了新的预测。
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引用次数: 0
期刊
Experimental psychology
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