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Genetically Modified Food Labeling in China: In Pursuit of a Rational Path. 中国转基因食品标识:一条理性的道路
IF 0.2 4区 医学 Q4 FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Pub Date : 2016-08-01
Xiao Zhu, Michael T Roberts, Kaijie Wu

Facing a tension between the increasing use of genetically engineered or modified food and consumer concerns over the risks associated with GMOs, China has established a GM food labeling regime through regulations-known as Agro-GMO regulations-to protect consumers' right to know. However, the design and enforcement of this GM food labeling regime is problematic. As a result, the labeling regime is ineffective and inconsistent, leaving consumers' rights unprotected. As the recently amended Food Safety Law in China requires GM food labeling for the first time, this article argues that China should replace the current Agro-GMO food labeling scheme with a special regulatory scheme. A comparative analysis of the GM food labeling systems in the European Union and United States, coupled with a rigorous examination of the problems and barriers of GM food labeling in China, sets a solid foundation by which to propose changes to incorporate into a special regulatory scheme. To this end, this article engages in such an analysis and recommends practical steps to guide the enactment of a special regulatory scheme. The recommendations comport with China's unique legal and political culture, but also could be used by other national regulatory regimes who permit use of GM food while also being committed to improving consumers' right to know.

面对日益增加的转基因食品使用和消费者对转基因生物相关风险的担忧之间的紧张关系,中国通过法规建立了转基因食品标签制度,即农业转基因生物法规,以保护消费者的知情权。然而,这种转基因食品标签制度的设计和执行是有问题的。因此,标签制度是无效的和不一致的,使消费者的权利不受保护。由于中国最近修订的《食品安全法》首次要求转基因食品标识,本文认为中国应以专门的监管方案取代现行的农业转基因食品标识制度。对欧盟和美国转基因食品标识制度的比较分析,加上对中国转基因食品标识问题和障碍的严格审查,为提出改革建议以纳入特殊监管计划奠定了坚实的基础。为此,本文进行了这样的分析,并建议了指导制定特殊监管计划的实际步骤。这些建议符合中国独特的法律和政治文化,但也可以被其他允许使用转基因食品的国家监管制度所借鉴,同时也致力于提高消费者的知情权。
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引用次数: 0
An Artless Tale: Challenges Faced in Clinical Research. 一个质朴的故事:临床研究面临的挑战。
IF 0.2 4区 医学 Q4 FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Pub Date : 2016-08-01
Steven Raper
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引用次数: 0
The Benefits of Regulatory Friction in Shaping Policy. 监管摩擦对政策形成的好处。
IF 0.2 4区 医学 Q4 FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Pub Date : 2016-01-01
Diana R H Winters

The regulation of food, drugs, and controlled substances in this country is exceedingly complex. Local, state, and federal regulation coexist, and common law remedies supplement positive law. Strata of regulation are necessary because patterns of production and consumption vary by region and demographic, while federal regulation provides regulatory uniformity across the United States. As localities struggle to sustain autonomy in response to local preference while working within a centralized system, and federal agencies struggle to maintain regulatory uniformity to foster a national marketplace, we see interaction and friction between regulatory spheres. While this friction usually becomes apparent through a lens of adversity, it is also a space of foment for policy change and democratic engagement. In this Paper I explore this productive space by looking at several recent instances of action by states in food, dietary supplements, and controlled substances regulation that highlight this friction. An analysis of these actions and the challenges to them provides an opportunity to view the interaction between different levels of regulatory authority and to discuss implications of the judicial review of these enactments. We see complex and shifting alliances working to change policy, and we see benefits in the push and pull caused by these actions.

这个国家对食品、药品和受管制物质的监管极其复杂。地方、州和联邦法规并存,普通法救济补充成文法。分层监管是必要的,因为生产和消费模式因地区和人口而异,而联邦监管在全美范围内提供了统一的监管。由于地方政府在中央集权体制下努力维持自治,以响应地方偏好,而联邦机构努力保持监管统一性,以促进全国市场,我们看到监管领域之间的互动和摩擦。虽然这种摩擦通常通过逆境的镜头变得明显,但它也是推动政策变革和民主参与的空间。在本文中,我通过观察最近几个国家在食品,膳食补充剂和受控物质监管方面的行动实例来探索这一富有成效的空间,这些实例突出了这种摩擦。对这些行动及其面临的挑战的分析提供了一个机会,可以查看不同级别的监管当局之间的相互作用,并讨论对这些法规进行司法审查的影响。我们看到,复杂多变的联盟正在努力改变政策,我们也看到了这些行动带来的推动和拉动带来的好处。
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引用次数: 0
First Amendment Limits on Compulsory Speech. 第一修正案对强制性言论的限制。
IF 0.2 4区 医学 Q4 FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Pub Date : 2016-01-01
Nigel Barrella
<p><p>Government-mandated labeling requirements have a long history, and are used extensively by FDA in regulating the industries under its jurisdiction. All such requirements can be characterized as a form of “compelled speech,” opening the door to First Amendment challenges. And some of these challenges, depending on the nature of the labeling requirement, have even been successful. Under Zauderer v. Office of Disciplinary Counsel of Supreme Court of Ohio, regulations that compel disclosure of information will, in many cases, merit only very limited First Amendment scrutiny—less, even, than most other regulations of commercial speech, which receive a type of “intermediate scrutiny.” The labeling requirement that can best avoid or overcome a First Amendment challenge, therefore, will follow the example of the regulation described in Zauderer. For example, Zauderer applied its lower scrutiny by noting that the compelled speech at issue was a disclosure of “purely factual and uncontroversial information.” Conversely, a successful First Amendment challenge to a labeling requirement will often involve an argument that the labeling requirement is outside the scope of what the Zauderer Court contemplated: so, for example, one may argue that a compelled disclosure is either “not factual” or else “controversial,” putting it beyond Zauderer’s reach. After briefly reviewing the major Supreme Court cases that establish the levels of scrutiny for commercial speech and compelled disclosures, the paper will discuss how the various elements of Zauderer have been analyzed by several lower courts, and how some courts have distinguished Zauderer in the context of labeling and other mandatory disclosure laws. In particular, the paper will focus on cases involving First Amendment challenges to food, tobacco, and drug labeling requirements—some successful, some not, and some ongoing—including cases challenging FDA, USDA, and state-level labeling requirements. The decided cases do not all agree on how to understand the elements of Zauderer—for example, must a disclosure be factually controversial to fall outside of Zauderer’s limited review, or may it be factually unquestionable but relating to a controversial topic? What role, if any, should public acceptance, knowledge, and history play? What sorts of interests may the government invoke to justify a labeling requirement? Although some courts have taken (or at least hinted at) strict limits on the meaning of Zauderer, most courts have read Zauderer as applying somewhat more expansively to circumstances beyond its facts. The paper concludes that generally, courts have read Zauderer more expansively in part because such a reading is consistent with existing, familiar labeling requirements, and a narrow reading of Zauderer limited to its facts would rest on a slippery slope to abolishing many accepted and historically unquestioned labeling requirements. Any future attempts to expand judicial review of labeling requirem
政府强制的标签要求有着悠久的历史,并被FDA广泛用于监管其管辖范围内的行业。所有这些要求都可以被定性为“强迫言论”的一种形式,为第一修正案的挑战打开了大门。其中一些挑战,取决于标签要求的性质,甚至取得了成功。在Zauderer诉俄亥俄州最高法院纪律顾问办公室一案中,在许多情况下,强制披露信息的规定只需要非常有限的第一修正案审查——甚至比大多数其他商业言论的规定更少,后者接受一种“中间审查”。因此,标签要求可以最好地避免或克服第一修正案的挑战,将遵循佐德尔案中描述的法规的例子。例如,佐德尔运用其较低的审查,指出争议中的强迫言论是“纯粹事实和无争议的信息”的披露。相反,一个成功的第一修正案对标注要求的挑战通常会涉及一个论点,即标注要求超出了Zauderer法院的考虑范围:因此,例如,一个人可能会辩称,强制披露要么“不真实”,要么“有争议”,使其超出了Zauderer的范围。在简要回顾了确立商业言论和强制披露审查水平的主要最高法院案件之后,本文将讨论几个下级法院如何分析Zauderer的各种要素,以及一些法院如何在标签和其他强制性披露法的背景下区分Zauderer。特别是,本文将重点关注涉及第一修正案对食品、烟草和药物标签要求的挑战的案例——有些成功,有些失败,有些正在进行中——包括挑战FDA、USDA和州一级标签要求的案例。已判决的案例并不都同意如何理解Zauderer的要素——例如,披露是否必须在事实上有争议才能不受Zauderer有限的审查,或者它是否在事实上毫无疑问但与有争议的话题有关?如果有的话,公众的接受、知识和历史应该扮演什么角色?政府会援引什么样的利益来证明标签要求的合理性?尽管一些法院已经(或至少暗示)严格限制了Zauderer的含义,但大多数法院都将Zauderer解读为更广泛地适用于超出事实的情况。论文的结论是,一般来说,法院更广泛地解读佐德尔案,部分原因是这样的解读与现有的、熟悉的标签要求是一致的,而对佐德尔案的狭隘解读,限于其事实,将会导致废除许多公认的、历史上未经质疑的标签要求。未来任何扩大对标签要求的司法审查的尝试,都应该强调解决这些问题的限制性原则。
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引用次数: 0
Early Developments in the Regulation of Biologics. 生物制剂监管的早期发展。
IF 0.2 4区 医学 Q4 FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Pub Date : 2016-01-01
Terry S Coleman

This article is a history of the policy positions and legal interpretations adopted by the Public Health Service (PHS) under the 1902 Biologics Control Act. PHS generally interpreted the scope of the Act narrowly because it lacked authority to deny marketing licenses for ineffective biologics and wanted to minimize the number of worthless drugs with the imprimatur of a governmental license. In addition, PHS implemented important regulatory strategies not expressly authorized by the Act.

本文是公共卫生服务(PHS)根据1902年《生物制剂控制法》采取的政策立场和法律解释的历史。PHS通常对该法案的范围解释得很狭隘,因为它没有权力拒绝无效生物制剂的销售许可,并希望尽量减少获得政府许可的无价值药物的数量。此外,PHS实施了法案未明确授权的重要监管策略。
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引用次数: 0
The Extent of Harm to the Victim as an Alternative Aggravating Factor for the Conviction of Felony Fraud in the Context of Food-Safety Violations. 食品安全违法背景下诈骗重罪定罪的被害人伤害程度加重因素选择。
IF 0.2 4区 医学 Q4 FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Pub Date : 2016-01-01
Yi-Chen Su

Finding the intent to defraud or mislead for the conviction of felony fraud could be very tricky in the context of food regulation. As compared to the split among the US federal circuit courts on the interpretation of intent, Taiwan courts looked into the extent of harm to the victim to determine whether the defendant should be convicted of felony fraud. In order to limit the scope of felony liability, Taiwanese law requires an additional showing of the extent of harm to the victim. Recently, courts in Taiwan further expanded the scope of the statutory language, “harmful to human health,” to include potential harm as demonstrated by animal studies. This approach provides courts in other jurisdiction with an alternative aggravating factor to assess criminal liability in nondisclosure cases arising out of non-compliance with food law.

在食品监管的背景下,发现欺诈或误导重罪欺诈的意图可能是非常棘手的。与美国联邦巡回法院在意图解释上的分歧相比,台湾法院考虑了对受害者的伤害程度,以确定被告是否应被判诈骗罪。为了限制重罪责任的范围,台湾法律要求额外显示对受害者的伤害程度。最近,台湾法院进一步扩大了“对人体健康有害”这一法定用语的范围,将动物研究证明的潜在危害也包括在内。这种方法为其他司法管辖区的法院提供了另一种加重因素,以评估因不遵守食品法而引起的不披露案件的刑事责任。
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引用次数: 0
Knowledge Sharing as a Social Dilemma in Pharmaceutical Innovation. 知识共享:药物创新中的社会困境。
IF 0.2 4区 医学 Q4 FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Pub Date : 2016-01-01
Daria Kim

This article addresses the problem of restricted access to industry-sponsored clinical trial data. In particular, it analyzes the intersection of the competing claims that mandatory disclosure of pharmaceutical test data impedes drug sponsors’ innovation incentives and that access facilitates new drug development. These claims are characterized in terms of public-good and common-resource dilemmas. The analysis finds confidentiality protection of primary research data plays an ambiguous role. While secrecy, as such, does not solve the public-good problem in pharmaceutical innovation (in the presence of regulatory instruments that protect the originator drug against generic competition), it is likely to exacerbate the common-resource problem, in view of data as a source of scientific knowledge. It is argued that the claim by the research-based industry that disclosure of clinical data impedes innovation incentives is misplaced and should not be leveraged against pro-access policies. While much attention has been paid to the problem of appropriability of drug R&D investment, this analysis highlights another consequence resulting from the private provision of clinical trials, i.e., factual confidentiality and possession of data by drug sponsors. The associated social costs are qualified in terms of internalized knowledge externalities. Since, in a competitive environment, companies are unlikely to change the strategy of non-sharing of primary data, the resulting economic inefficiencies at the sector level call for regulatory intervention. To reconcile the competing policy objectives, it is proposed that the rules of access should be designed in such a way that third-party use of primary data does not interfere with protection against generic competition. At the same time, the long-term collective benefit can be maximized when the “cooperative choice” (i.e., when everyone shares data) becomes the “dominant strategy.” This can be achieved only when access is not subject to the authorization of the initial trial sponsors, and when primary data is aggregated, refined, and managed on the collective basis.

这篇文章解决了限制获取行业赞助的临床试验数据的问题。特别是,它分析了相互竞争的主张的交集,即强制性披露药物试验数据阻碍了药物赞助商的创新激励,而获取有助于新药开发。这些主张的特点是公共利益和共同资源的困境。分析发现,原始研究数据的保密保护起到了模糊的作用。虽然保密本身并不能解决制药创新中的公益问题(在存在保护原始药物免受仿制药竞争的监管文书的情况下),但鉴于数据是科学知识的来源,保密可能会加剧公共资源问题。有人认为,研究型行业声称临床数据披露阻碍了创新激励的说法是错误的,不应该用来对抗支持获取的政策。虽然人们对药物研发投资的适当性问题给予了很多关注,但本分析强调了私人提供临床试验所造成的另一个后果,即药物赞助商对事实保密和拥有数据。相关的社会成本在内部化知识外部性方面是合格的。由于在竞争环境中,公司不太可能改变不共享原始数据的战略,因此部门层面的经济低效需要监管干预。为了协调相互竞争的政策目标,建议在设计获取规则时,应使第三方对原始数据的使用不会干扰对非专利竞争的保护。同时,当“合作选择”(即所有人共享数据)成为“优势策略”时,可以实现长期集体利益最大化。只有在不受初始试验发起人授权的情况下,以及在集体基础上汇总、精炼和管理原始数据时,才能实现这一点。
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引用次数: 0
Remarks of the FDA Commissioner: The Food and Drug Law Institute's 59th Annual Conference. 美国食品和药物管理局局长致辞:食品药品法研究所第 59 届年会。
IF 0.3 4区 医学 Q4 FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Pub Date : 2016-01-01
Robert M Califf
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引用次数: 0
Truth, Falsity, and Fraud: Off-Label Drug Settlements and the Future of the Civil False Claims Act. 真相,虚假和欺诈:非标签药品和解和民事虚假索赔法的未来。
IF 0.2 4区 医学 Q4 FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Pub Date : 2016-01-01
Joan H Krause

The pharmaceutical industry may be losing the battle of public opinion, but it has won important victories in the war over First Amendment commercial speech. In December 2012, the Second Circuit held in United States v. Caronia that the misbranding provisions of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act could not prohibit a sales representative’s truthful statements promoting off-label uses of his company’s products. At the same time, a parallel area of pharmaceutical litigation has curiously remained almost untouched: Civil False Claims Act (FCA) settlements based on allegations that manufacturers caused false claims to be submitted by promoting their drugs off-label. Yet logic suggests that if manufacturers have a First Amendment right to discuss off-label drug uses, claims submitted when drugs are prescribed for those uses should not be considered false. This inconsistency is problematic and likely unsustainable. If manufacturers are emboldened by Caronia to challenge off-label FCA suits, the focus likely will be on the truth of the company’s statements. Despite its name, however, FCA is unsuited to addressing disputes over medical and scientific data. To maintain the integrity of this key anti-fraud enforcement tool, it is crucial to separate the truth of the claims for payment from the truth of the manufacturer’s underlying scientific statements. Because Medicare and Medicaid coverage determinations rely heavily on FDA approval, however, those issues are inextricably intertwined. This article explores why off-label promotion has been treated inconsistently in these contexts, and how this trend highlights the limitations of the FCA as a panacea for health care fraud.

制药业可能正在输掉舆论之战,但它在反对第一修正案商业言论的战争中赢得了重要胜利。2012年12月,第二巡回法院在《美国诉卡罗尼亚案》(United States v. Caronia)中裁定,《食品、药品和化妆品法》(Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act)的虚假商标条款不能禁止销售代表在推销其公司产品的标签外用途时做出真实陈述。与此同时,令人奇怪的是,制药诉讼的一个平行领域几乎没有受到影响:民事虚假申报法(FCA)基于制造商通过推销其药品标签外导致虚假声明提交的指控达成和解。然而,从逻辑上讲,如果制造商根据第一修正案有权讨论标签外药物的用途,那么在处方药物用于这些用途时提交的声明不应被视为虚假。这种不一致是有问题的,而且可能是不可持续的。如果制造商们因为Caronia而敢于挑战FCA的标签外诉讼,那么焦点可能会集中在该公司声明的真实性上。尽管名为FCA,但它并不适合解决有关医疗和科学数据的争议。为了保持这一关键的反欺诈执法工具的完整性,将付款索赔的真实性与制造商基础科学陈述的真实性分开是至关重要的。然而,由于医疗保险和医疗补助覆盖范围的决定严重依赖于FDA的批准,这些问题是不可避免地交织在一起的。本文探讨了为什么标签外促销在这些情况下被不一致地对待,以及这一趋势如何突出了FCA作为医疗保健欺诈灵丹妙药的局限性。
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引用次数: 0
The Scope of Preemption under the 2009 Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act. 2009年《家庭吸烟预防和烟草控制法》下的优先购买权范围。
IF 0.2 4区 医学 Q4 FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Pub Date : 2016-01-01
Sam F Halabi
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引用次数: 0
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