Pub Date : 2019-03-14DOI: 10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.20
J. Stanton
Much of the terrorism occurring worldwide is domestic terrorism carried out by rebel groups fighting in civil wars. However, many are reluctant to categorize domestic insurgencies as terrorist groups or to identify the tactics used by domestic insurgencies as terrorist tactics. Through a survey of the literature addressing the relationship between terrorism and civil war, I contend that research on the dynamics of violence in civil war would benefit from a more standardized definition of the concept of terrorism as well as greater consensus on how the concept of terrorism ought to be used in relation to the concept of civilian targeting. The lack of conceptual clarity in distinguishing between terrorism and civilian targeting makes it difficult to compare research findings, and thus to make progress as a field in our understanding of the causes of violence and its consequences. Despite the challenges associated with making comparisons across studies, this chapter attempts to do precisely this, drawing on research on terrorism as well as research on civilian targeting to develop insights on the causes and consequences of terrorist violence employed in the context of civil war.
{"title":"Terrorism, Civil War, and Insurgency","authors":"J. Stanton","doi":"10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.20","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.20","url":null,"abstract":"Much of the terrorism occurring worldwide is domestic terrorism carried out by rebel groups fighting in civil wars. However, many are reluctant to categorize domestic insurgencies as terrorist groups or to identify the tactics used by domestic insurgencies as terrorist tactics. Through a survey of the literature addressing the relationship between terrorism and civil war, I contend that research on the dynamics of violence in civil war would benefit from a more standardized definition of the concept of terrorism as well as greater consensus on how the concept of terrorism ought to be used in relation to the concept of civilian targeting. The lack of conceptual clarity in distinguishing between terrorism and civilian targeting makes it difficult to compare research findings, and thus to make progress as a field in our understanding of the causes of violence and its consequences. Despite the challenges associated with making comparisons across studies, this chapter attempts to do precisely this, drawing on research on terrorism as well as research on civilian targeting to develop insights on the causes and consequences of terrorist violence employed in the context of civil war.","PeriodicalId":124314,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Terrorism","volume":"309 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-03-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124396371","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-03-14DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198732914.013.32
B. Ganor, E. Azani
The tectonic changes that began in the Middle East as a result of the “Arab Spring” uprisings, the collapse of traditional regimes, and the development of regions lacking governance served as fertile ground for the growth of terrorist organizations. The Middle East is still in a cloud of turmoil whose end is not yet in sight. The Middle East is likely to continue to serve as a center of terrorism and a platform for exporting instability, violence, and terrorism to other regions of the world. The chapter examines terrorism in the Middle East from a historical perspective, looking at the rise of Palestinian secular terrorist organizations in the 1960s and 1970s; the growth of religious Jihadist organizations in the 1980s and 1990s, and finally the emergence of Al Qaeda and the so-called Islamic State from 2000 onwards.
{"title":"Terrorism in the Middle East","authors":"B. Ganor, E. Azani","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198732914.013.32","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198732914.013.32","url":null,"abstract":"The tectonic changes that began in the Middle East as a result of the “Arab Spring” uprisings, the collapse of traditional regimes, and the development of regions lacking governance served as fertile ground for the growth of terrorist organizations. The Middle East is still in a cloud of turmoil whose end is not yet in sight. The Middle East is likely to continue to serve as a center of terrorism and a platform for exporting instability, violence, and terrorism to other regions of the world. The chapter examines terrorism in the Middle East from a historical perspective, looking at the rise of Palestinian secular terrorist organizations in the 1960s and 1970s; the growth of religious Jihadist organizations in the 1980s and 1990s, and finally the emergence of Al Qaeda and the so-called Islamic State from 2000 onwards.","PeriodicalId":124314,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Terrorism","volume":"64 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-03-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122680891","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-03-14DOI: 10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.18
G. Ackerman, Anastasia Kouloganes
Some terrorists appear to focus their ire around a particular issue or small set of issues and are often characterized using the label “single-issue terrorist.” This chapter discusses the concept of single-issue terrorism as it appears in the broader terrorism literature and formulates a working definition based on this scholarship. It then critically assesses whether single-issue groups as commonly conceived of actually exist and, even if they do, whether they can persist or merely represent an ephemeral stage in the development of a terrorist group. More fundamentally, the chapter examines the very utility of the term and suggests that our understanding of terrorism might be better served by abandoning the use of the label to describe a separate type of terrorism and instead characterizing the phenomenon as an attribute of a broader ideology. Throughout, these ideas are illustrated by reference to three ostensibly single-issue terrorist organizations.
{"title":"Single-Issue Terrorism","authors":"G. Ackerman, Anastasia Kouloganes","doi":"10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.18","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.18","url":null,"abstract":"Some terrorists appear to focus their ire around a particular issue or small set of issues and are often characterized using the label “single-issue terrorist.” This chapter discusses the concept of single-issue terrorism as it appears in the broader terrorism literature and formulates a working definition based on this scholarship. It then critically assesses whether single-issue groups as commonly conceived of actually exist and, even if they do, whether they can persist or merely represent an ephemeral stage in the development of a terrorist group. More fundamentally, the chapter examines the very utility of the term and suggests that our understanding of terrorism might be better served by abandoning the use of the label to describe a separate type of terrorism and instead characterizing the phenomenon as an attribute of a broader ideology. Throughout, these ideas are illustrated by reference to three ostensibly single-issue terrorist organizations.","PeriodicalId":124314,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Terrorism","volume":"12 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-03-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128275131","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-03-14DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198732914.013.28
Caron E. Gentry
This chapter attempts to refute the surprise and shock that arises as a response to women’s involvement in political violence. It does so by first revisiting the longstanding literature on women’s engagement in political violence, looking at both the provocative and the thoughtful conclusions that have been drawn about women’s violence. It then moves onto to consider where and how women have been involved in political violence historically, including as ideologues and actors in pre-revolutionary Russian political violence, leaders in the 1960s Marxist-Leninist groups in the West, activists in the Palestinian intifadas, and suicide bombers in multiple locations. The chapter emphasizes that terrorism studies scholars cannot continue to bifurcate women’s involvement as emotional and relational and men’s involvement as political. Instead, we need to continue to see all individual’s involvement in terrorist activity as complicated.
{"title":"Women and Terrorism","authors":"Caron E. Gentry","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198732914.013.28","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198732914.013.28","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter attempts to refute the surprise and shock that arises as a response to women’s involvement in political violence. It does so by first revisiting the longstanding literature on women’s engagement in political violence, looking at both the provocative and the thoughtful conclusions that have been drawn about women’s violence. It then moves onto to consider where and how women have been involved in political violence historically, including as ideologues and actors in pre-revolutionary Russian political violence, leaders in the 1960s Marxist-Leninist groups in the West, activists in the Palestinian intifadas, and suicide bombers in multiple locations. The chapter emphasizes that terrorism studies scholars cannot continue to bifurcate women’s involvement as emotional and relational and men’s involvement as political. Instead, we need to continue to see all individual’s involvement in terrorist activity as complicated.","PeriodicalId":124314,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Terrorism","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-03-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130671115","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-03-14DOI: 10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.3
G. LaFree
Terrorism event databases provide systematized descriptive information about terrorist attacks from unclassified, open sources where the attack is the unit of analysis. There have been a dozen or more systematic efforts to build terrorism event databases over the past four decades. Because terrorism is a type of behavior that is difficult to study by more traditional means (e.g. police reports or victim or offender surveys), event databases have come to fill an important niche. Contemporary efforts to build event databases can be traced back to the late 1960s and are likely related to the introduction of satellites and portable video equipment—technology that made it possible to send instantaneously images of conflict and violence from any one place on the planet to any other place. Thus far the most comprehensive event databases have been the RAND Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism and the RAND Database of Worldwide Terrorism Incidents (MIPT-RDWTI), the International Terrorism: Attributes of Terrorist Events (ITERATE), the Global Terrorism Database (GTD), the terrorism data collected by the US State Department, and the World-Wide Incidents Tracking System (WITS). Given the often clandestine nature of terrorism, event data have important weaknesses, most notably media inaccuracies; conflicting information or false, multiple, or no claims of responsibility; government censorship and disinformation; and a lack of systematic empirical validation. Nevertheless, event databases on terrorism can be justified in part because most terrorists seek publicity. Likely future improvements include better coverage of domestic terrorism, more extensive automated coding, enhanced geo-spatial coding, and better linkages to related databases.
{"title":"The Evolution of Terrorism Event Databases","authors":"G. LaFree","doi":"10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.3","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.3","url":null,"abstract":"Terrorism event databases provide systematized descriptive information about terrorist attacks from unclassified, open sources where the attack is the unit of analysis. There have been a dozen or more systematic efforts to build terrorism event databases over the past four decades. Because terrorism is a type of behavior that is difficult to study by more traditional means (e.g. police reports or victim or offender surveys), event databases have come to fill an important niche. Contemporary efforts to build event databases can be traced back to the late 1960s and are likely related to the introduction of satellites and portable video equipment—technology that made it possible to send instantaneously images of conflict and violence from any one place on the planet to any other place. Thus far the most comprehensive event databases have been the RAND Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism and the RAND Database of Worldwide Terrorism Incidents (MIPT-RDWTI), the International Terrorism: Attributes of Terrorist Events (ITERATE), the Global Terrorism Database (GTD), the terrorism data collected by the US State Department, and the World-Wide Incidents Tracking System (WITS). Given the often clandestine nature of terrorism, event data have important weaknesses, most notably media inaccuracies; conflicting information or false, multiple, or no claims of responsibility; government censorship and disinformation; and a lack of systematic empirical validation. Nevertheless, event databases on terrorism can be justified in part because most terrorists seek publicity. Likely future improvements include better coverage of domestic terrorism, more extensive automated coding, enhanced geo-spatial coding, and better linkages to related databases.","PeriodicalId":124314,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Terrorism","volume":"60 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-03-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126305130","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-03-14DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198732914.013.45
David A. Siegel
Active-learning exercises, such as in-class simulations and role play, are increasingly used alongside more traditional teaching methods of discussion and lecture in order to develop deeper understanding of complex topics, particularly those involving strategic behavior. This article describes in-class experiences with several instances of active learning that can be used to teach strategic concepts that arise in the study of terrorism. The first long-form exercise involves a simulated hostage crisis, comprises multiple roles including media, government, and terrorists, and highlights strategic concepts of credible commitment and costly signaling. The second long-form exercise captures the strategic interplay of government and terror group, and highlights agency problems and the difficulty of allocating limited resources. Shorter exercises cover: religion and its connection to the absolute; tactic diffusion, outbidding, and the importance of local support; media sensationalism; and terrorist financing.
{"title":"New Techniques in Teaching Terrorism","authors":"David A. Siegel","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198732914.013.45","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198732914.013.45","url":null,"abstract":"Active-learning exercises, such as in-class simulations and role play, are increasingly used alongside more traditional teaching methods of discussion and lecture in order to develop deeper understanding of complex topics, particularly those involving strategic behavior. This article describes in-class experiences with several instances of active learning that can be used to teach strategic concepts that arise in the study of terrorism. The first long-form exercise involves a simulated hostage crisis, comprises multiple roles including media, government, and terrorists, and highlights strategic concepts of credible commitment and costly signaling. The second long-form exercise captures the strategic interplay of government and terror group, and highlights agency problems and the difficulty of allocating limited resources. Shorter exercises cover: religion and its connection to the absolute; tactic diffusion, outbidding, and the importance of local support; media sensationalism; and terrorist financing.","PeriodicalId":124314,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Terrorism","volume":"16 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-03-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125641658","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-03-14DOI: 10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.6
Martin A. Miller
This analysis of modern terrorism began with my inquiry into “The Intellectual Origins of Modern Terrorism” that appeared in Martha Crenshaw’s Terrorism in Context volume (Penn State University Press, 1994) and continued through my article “Ordinary Terrorism in Historical Perspective” (Journal for the Study of Radicalism, 2(1), 2008). My intention is to challenge the conversation over scholarly definitions of terrorism by moving beyond the predominating view that the violence emerges primarily from militants. My contention is that moments of terrorism in specific historical contexts must include the state, whose security forces are locked in mortal combat with insurgent groups. Both are contesting the reigning political legitimacy, with governments seeking to defend their authority while militants aspire to sabotage it. The result is a violent danse macabre that the case studies in this chapter clearly demonstrate.
{"title":"European Political Violence during the Long Nineteenth Century","authors":"Martin A. Miller","doi":"10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.6","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.6","url":null,"abstract":"This analysis of modern terrorism began with my inquiry into “The Intellectual Origins of Modern Terrorism” that appeared in Martha Crenshaw’s Terrorism in Context volume (Penn State University Press, 1994) and continued through my article “Ordinary Terrorism in Historical Perspective” (Journal for the Study of Radicalism, 2(1), 2008). My intention is to challenge the conversation over scholarly definitions of terrorism by moving beyond the predominating view that the violence emerges primarily from militants. My contention is that moments of terrorism in specific historical contexts must include the state, whose security forces are locked in mortal combat with insurgent groups. Both are contesting the reigning political legitimacy, with governments seeking to defend their authority while militants aspire to sabotage it. The result is a violent danse macabre that the case studies in this chapter clearly demonstrate.","PeriodicalId":124314,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Terrorism","volume":"40 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-03-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121949776","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-03-14DOI: 10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.15
Richard A. English
There is little that is straightforward about the relationship between nationalism and terrorism: each of these phenomena is deeply complex in itself, and the relationship between them is multiply so. This chapter addresses questions central to this significant relationship between two world-historical forces. First, to what extent do the politics of nationalism and its associated conflicts generate non-state (and also state) terrorist violence? Second, does the nationalist legitimation of high-functioning states produce order and stability which make terrorism less likely? Third, does terrorist violence act as a means of destabilizing existing nationalist orders, whether or not it helps to usher in new ones? Fourth, does the analysis and study of terrorism vary according to rival nationalist contexts and politics?
{"title":"Nationalism and Terrorism","authors":"Richard A. English","doi":"10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.15","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.15","url":null,"abstract":"There is little that is straightforward about the relationship between nationalism and terrorism: each of these phenomena is deeply complex in itself, and the relationship between them is multiply so. This chapter addresses questions central to this significant relationship between two world-historical forces. First, to what extent do the politics of nationalism and its associated conflicts generate non-state (and also state) terrorist violence? Second, does the nationalist legitimation of high-functioning states produce order and stability which make terrorism less likely? Third, does terrorist violence act as a means of destabilizing existing nationalist orders, whether or not it helps to usher in new ones? Fourth, does the analysis and study of terrorism vary according to rival nationalist contexts and politics?","PeriodicalId":124314,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Terrorism","volume":"74 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-03-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115803120","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-03-14DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198732914.013.4
Virginia Held
What terrorism is and how it should be understood are highly contested issues that themselves raise moral questions. Many seek to attach the labels of terrorism to the actions of those they oppose, while exempting uses of violence by those they favor from comparable criticism. Reasonable definitions and discussions are possible, however, and they are attempted here. Terrorism is not a new phenomenon. Moral evaluations of it, and especially of justifiable responses to it, can well be made. The chapter considers alternative moral theories with which to make such evaluations. Among other characterizations, terrorism is violence used for political objectives. Uses of violence to uphold unjust political arrangements can be less justifiable than uses of violence to change them. Responding to terrorism with massive military force is counterproductive. Terrorism is undermined as potential recruits no longer join or follow terrorist groups. We ought to aim to reduce all uses of violence.
{"title":"The Moral Dimensions of Terrorism","authors":"Virginia Held","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198732914.013.4","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198732914.013.4","url":null,"abstract":"What terrorism is and how it should be understood are highly contested issues that themselves raise moral questions. Many seek to attach the labels of terrorism to the actions of those they oppose, while exempting uses of violence by those they favor from comparable criticism. Reasonable definitions and discussions are possible, however, and they are attempted here. Terrorism is not a new phenomenon. Moral evaluations of it, and especially of justifiable responses to it, can well be made. The chapter considers alternative moral theories with which to make such evaluations. Among other characterizations, terrorism is violence used for political objectives. Uses of violence to uphold unjust political arrangements can be less justifiable than uses of violence to change them. Responding to terrorism with massive military force is counterproductive. Terrorism is undermined as potential recruits no longer join or follow terrorist groups. We ought to aim to reduce all uses of violence.","PeriodicalId":124314,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Terrorism","volume":"41 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-03-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130459651","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-03-14DOI: 10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.12
Brenda J. Lutz
While many have considered terrorism to be a uniquely modern phenomenon, a review of terrorism over time indicates it has deep historical roots. Historical cases include violence in the late Roman Republic, the Zealots in Roman Judea, anti-colonial attacks against the British, Dutch, and Spanish in Asia, the prelude to the American Revolution, the Reign of Terror in France, and eventually the more modern manifestations and uses by nationalist or ethnic groups, extremists drawn from most religious traditions, leftist dissidents including the anarchist, and right-wing extremists including the Fascists and Nazis after World War I as well as the Ku Klux Klan in the United States. While terrorism has been present for centuries, there have been significant changes. Police and security forces have increased in quantity and quality, but terrorists have gained access to more lethal techniques and weapons.
{"title":"Historical Approaches to Terrorism","authors":"Brenda J. Lutz","doi":"10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.12","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780198732914.013.12","url":null,"abstract":"While many have considered terrorism to be a uniquely modern phenomenon, a review of terrorism over time indicates it has deep historical roots. Historical cases include violence in the late Roman Republic, the Zealots in Roman Judea, anti-colonial attacks against the British, Dutch, and Spanish in Asia, the prelude to the American Revolution, the Reign of Terror in France, and eventually the more modern manifestations and uses by nationalist or ethnic groups, extremists drawn from most religious traditions, leftist dissidents including the anarchist, and right-wing extremists including the Fascists and Nazis after World War I as well as the Ku Klux Klan in the United States. While terrorism has been present for centuries, there have been significant changes. Police and security forces have increased in quantity and quality, but terrorists have gained access to more lethal techniques and weapons.","PeriodicalId":124314,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Terrorism","volume":"31 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-03-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124371960","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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