Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422615
P. Slade, R.K. Smith
During the development of a vacuum interrupter for a 63k.A, 15kV generator breaker it was observed that the transverse magnetic field (TMF) contact structure operated well under the difficult short circuit conditions expected from such a circuit breaker. The TMF contact successfully endured the long arcing times associated with no current zero periods of very high asymmetric currents and also interrupted them successfully. This development resulted in the question: how would the interruption performance of axial magnetic field (AMF) contacts compare with the TMF designs for short circuit currents and for long arcing times? A controlled experiment using both contact structures was thus developed. Contacts using TMF and AMF structures with Cu-Cr contacts and the same dimensions were manufactured into experimental vacuum interrupters that had the same diameter. A 12kV, 16Hz ac circuit was arranged using our tuned capacitor circuit in our High Power Test Lab. The two contact structures were then evaluated for symmetric short circuit currents in the range 16kA (rms.) to 2SkA (rms.). It was observed that the TMF contact successfully interrupted the circuit for currents all the way up to the 25kA level 100% of the time. The AMF contact interrupted the circuit 100% of the time for currents up to 22.5kA, but had a distinct drop in its ability at 25kA where it was successful only 80% of the time. These data will be discussed in terms of the quite different vacuum arc characteristics expected from the TMF and AMF contact structures.
{"title":"A comparison of the short circuit interruption performance using transverse magnetic field contacts and axial magnetic field contacts in low frequency circuits with long arcing times i","authors":"P. Slade, R.K. Smith","doi":"10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422615","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422615","url":null,"abstract":"During the development of a vacuum interrupter for a 63k.A, 15kV generator breaker it was observed that the transverse magnetic field (TMF) contact structure operated well under the difficult short circuit conditions expected from such a circuit breaker. The TMF contact successfully endured the long arcing times associated with no current zero periods of very high asymmetric currents and also interrupted them successfully. This development resulted in the question: how would the interruption performance of axial magnetic field (AMF) contacts compare with the TMF designs for short circuit currents and for long arcing times? A controlled experiment using both contact structures was thus developed. Contacts using TMF and AMF structures with Cu-Cr contacts and the same dimensions were manufactured into experimental vacuum interrupters that had the same diameter. A 12kV, 16Hz ac circuit was arranged using our tuned capacitor circuit in our High Power Test Lab. The two contact structures were then evaluated for symmetric short circuit currents in the range 16kA (rms.) to 2SkA (rms.). It was observed that the TMF contact successfully interrupted the circuit for currents all the way up to the 25kA level 100% of the time. The AMF contact interrupted the circuit 100% of the time for currents up to 22.5kA, but had a distinct drop in its ability at 25kA where it was successful only 80% of the time. These data will be discussed in terms of the quite different vacuum arc characteristics expected from the TMF and AMF contact structures.","PeriodicalId":137370,"journal":{"name":"XXIst International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum, 2004. Proceedings. ISDEIV.","volume":"82 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128613059","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422644
W. Hartmann, W. Haas, M. Romheld, N. Wenzel
In order to explore the feasibility of axial magnetic field (AMF) contacts for applications requiring large contacts at large contact separation, i. e. at voltages above the typical medium voltage regime, experiments have been performed to investigate the arc behavior under these conditions. The AMF arcs were produced between AMF contacts in a synthetic test circuit; the contacts which were numerically optimized by 3- dimensional finite element modeling of the magnetic field distribution. High-speed video recording was used as a major diagnostics to investigate the arc behavior under different conditions. It was found that successful interruptions could be performed at RMS currrents of over 30 kA, at contact strokes of several tens of mm. Even at the highest currents investigated (42 kArms) the arcs are evenly distributed over most of the contact surface, indicating the suitability of AMF contacts for a current interruption capability of 40 kA of nominal short circuit current at these contact strokes.
{"title":"AMF vacuum arcs at large contact separation","authors":"W. Hartmann, W. Haas, M. Romheld, N. Wenzel","doi":"10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422644","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422644","url":null,"abstract":"In order to explore the feasibility of axial magnetic field (AMF) contacts for applications requiring large contacts at large contact separation, i. e. at voltages above the typical medium voltage regime, experiments have been performed to investigate the arc behavior under these conditions. The AMF arcs were produced between AMF contacts in a synthetic test circuit; the contacts which were numerically optimized by 3- dimensional finite element modeling of the magnetic field distribution. High-speed video recording was used as a major diagnostics to investigate the arc behavior under different conditions. It was found that successful interruptions could be performed at RMS currrents of over 30 kA, at contact strokes of several tens of mm. Even at the highest currents investigated (42 kArms) the arcs are evenly distributed over most of the contact surface, indicating the suitability of AMF contacts for a current interruption capability of 40 kA of nominal short circuit current at these contact strokes.","PeriodicalId":137370,"journal":{"name":"XXIst International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum, 2004. Proceedings. ISDEIV.","volume":"227 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115553203","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422708
V.F. Anismov, M. Zilberman, M. L. Kogel
Electrical strength of the high-voltage vacuum triode with an oxide-nickel cathode and a placed in bridge with the cathode- grid gap spark discharger was investigated. It was determined that electrical strength (frequency of the discharges) and the current density of the cathode after discharges with total energy to 800j was not changed during the period of the investigation.
{"title":"Investigations of the electrical strength of the high voltage triode with a placed in bridge with the cathode-grid gap discharger","authors":"V.F. Anismov, M. Zilberman, M. L. Kogel","doi":"10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422708","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422708","url":null,"abstract":"Electrical strength of the high-voltage vacuum triode with an oxide-nickel cathode and a placed in bridge with the cathode- grid gap spark discharger was investigated. It was determined that electrical strength (frequency of the discharges) and the current density of the cathode after discharges with total energy to 800j was not changed during the period of the investigation.","PeriodicalId":137370,"journal":{"name":"XXIst International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum, 2004. Proceedings. ISDEIV.","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127051815","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422607
Tao Liu, Zhiying Ma
The optimum design method of moving characteristics of 126kV Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB) with spring operation mechanism is presented in this paper. Mathematical model and virtual prototype of 126kV VCR arc set up, and the dynamic and kinetic characteristics arc described as well. ADAMS (Automatic Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical System) is applied in the dynamic simulation to solve the complex calculation of moving characteristics. Satisfactory simulation results can be obtained by iterative modifying parameters of the model, and it is shown that this model can be used to study the dynamic features of VCB and to provide a good basis for circuit breaker optimum design.
介绍了126kV弹簧操动机构真空断路器运动特性的优化设计方法。建立了126kV VCR电弧的数学模型和虚拟样机，描述了电弧的动力和运动特性。为了解决运动特性的复杂计算问题，在动态仿真中应用了ADAMS (Automatic Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical System)。通过对模型参数的迭代修正，得到了满意的仿真结果，表明该模型可用于研究断路器的动态特性，为断路器的优化设计提供了良好的依据。
{"title":"Design and dynamic simulation of moving characteristics of 126kV vacuum circuit breaker","authors":"Tao Liu, Zhiying Ma","doi":"10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422607","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422607","url":null,"abstract":"The optimum design method of moving characteristics of 126kV Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB) with spring operation mechanism is presented in this paper. Mathematical model and virtual prototype of 126kV VCR arc set up, and the dynamic and kinetic characteristics arc described as well. ADAMS (Automatic Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical System) is applied in the dynamic simulation to solve the complex calculation of moving characteristics. Satisfactory simulation results can be obtained by iterative modifying parameters of the model, and it is shown that this model can be used to study the dynamic features of VCB and to provide a good basis for circuit breaker optimum design.","PeriodicalId":137370,"journal":{"name":"XXIst International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum, 2004. Proceedings. ISDEIV.","volume":"70 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115063996","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422633
E. Dullni, D. Gentsch, I. Kleberg, K. Niayesh, W. Shang
The new IEC 62271-100 requires an extensive proof of the capability of capacitive switching for a breaker under test. For vacuum circuit breakers. dielectric properties are mainly determined by the condition of the contact surfaces, which are modified by in-rush currents as well as load-breaking currents. A synthetic single-phase test device has been erected in order to investigate these dependencies in detail and to get knowledge of the statistical properties of the investigated interrupters. The results are evaluated with respect to pre-ignition field strengths and contact strokes. Application to commercial solutions are presented coping with the required standard class C2.
{"title":"Switching of capacitive currents","authors":"E. Dullni, D. Gentsch, I. Kleberg, K. Niayesh, W. Shang","doi":"10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422633","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422633","url":null,"abstract":"The new IEC 62271-100 requires an extensive proof of the capability of capacitive switching for a breaker under test. For vacuum circuit breakers. dielectric properties are mainly determined by the condition of the contact surfaces, which are modified by in-rush currents as well as load-breaking currents. A synthetic single-phase test device has been erected in order to investigate these dependencies in detail and to get knowledge of the statistical properties of the investigated interrupters. The results are evaluated with respect to pre-ignition field strengths and contact strokes. Application to commercial solutions are presented coping with the required standard class C2.","PeriodicalId":137370,"journal":{"name":"XXIst International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum, 2004. Proceedings. ISDEIV.","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132686013","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422689
Liao Min-fu, Duan Xiong-ying, Sun Hui
The finite element method has proven to be a very useful tool for calculating the electric field in vacuum interrupters. A number of infinite element programs have been developed for this special task. For those who do not have access to one these specialized programs and do not wish to develop their own program, another option is available to use the commercial finite element programs such as the ANSYS finite element program. Recently a new vacuum circuit breaker (VCB) technology with multi-breaks is proposed by means of placing the fiber-controlled vacuum interrupter modules (FCVIMs) in series just like the building blocks. This contribution uses the ANSYS finite element program to calculate the electric field in VCB with double or triple breaks that are composed of FCVIMs. The model of a 12kV vacuum interrupter is set up to calculate the three dimensional (3D) electric field as well as its self-capacitance the three VCB with double or triple breaks are also set up for calculation while the capacitance equivalent circuit is proposed for stimulating the voltage distribution of the breaks. By means of calculation of different collocation of VCB with triple breaks, the optimized electric field calculation is put forward. It shows that it is really an effective method for the design of VCB with multi-breaks using the ANSYS finite element program.
{"title":"3d electric field calculation of vacuum circuit breakers with multiple breaks using the ANSYS finite element program","authors":"Liao Min-fu, Duan Xiong-ying, Sun Hui","doi":"10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422689","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422689","url":null,"abstract":"The finite element method has proven to be a very useful tool for calculating the electric field in vacuum interrupters. A number of infinite element programs have been developed for this special task. For those who do not have access to one these specialized programs and do not wish to develop their own program, another option is available to use the commercial finite element programs such as the ANSYS finite element program. Recently a new vacuum circuit breaker (VCB) technology with multi-breaks is proposed by means of placing the fiber-controlled vacuum interrupter modules (FCVIMs) in series just like the building blocks. This contribution uses the ANSYS finite element program to calculate the electric field in VCB with double or triple breaks that are composed of FCVIMs. The model of a 12kV vacuum interrupter is set up to calculate the three dimensional (3D) electric field as well as its self-capacitance the three VCB with double or triple breaks are also set up for calculation while the capacitance equivalent circuit is proposed for stimulating the voltage distribution of the breaks. By means of calculation of different collocation of VCB with triple breaks, the optimized electric field calculation is put forward. It shows that it is really an effective method for the design of VCB with multi-breaks using the ANSYS finite element program.","PeriodicalId":137370,"journal":{"name":"XXIst International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum, 2004. Proceedings. ISDEIV.","volume":"37 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132100536","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422634
E. Schade, D. Shmelev
High-current arcs as found in AMF vacuum interrupters have been numerically simulated taking into account the effect of evaporation of metal vapor from the anode surface. The Magneto-Hydro-Dynamic approach is applied. The physical behavior has been studied and the heat flux to the anode determined. Rise of surface temperature and rate of evaporation has been analyzed for arcing with one half wave of 50Hz-AC-current between Cu contacts. The transition from diffuse to diffuse columnar seems to occur when evaporation rate of metal vapor from the contact surfaces exceeds the emission of plasma produced by the cathode spots.
{"title":"Numerical simulation of high-current vacuum arcs in external magnetic fields taking into account essential anode evaporation","authors":"E. Schade, D. Shmelev","doi":"10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422634","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422634","url":null,"abstract":"High-current arcs as found in AMF vacuum interrupters have been numerically simulated taking into account the effect of evaporation of metal vapor from the anode surface. The Magneto-Hydro-Dynamic approach is applied. The physical behavior has been studied and the heat flux to the anode determined. Rise of surface temperature and rate of evaporation has been analyzed for arcing with one half wave of 50Hz-AC-current between Cu contacts. The transition from diffuse to diffuse columnar seems to occur when evaporation rate of metal vapor from the contact surfaces exceeds the emission of plasma produced by the cathode spots.","PeriodicalId":137370,"journal":{"name":"XXIst International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum, 2004. Proceedings. ISDEIV.","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116054695","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422617
Duan Xiong-ying, Fang Chun-en, Zou Ji-yan, Ding Fu-hua
Operation of switching capacitor banks always produce over voltages and inrush currents, which may be harmful not only to the capacitor hanks themselves but also to other adjacent components of the system. Synchronized closing has been proved an efficient solution to reduce switching surge. In the present study, a l2kV vacuum circuit breaker (VCB) with permanent magnet actuator for each pole is used as the shunt capacitor switch. The influences on synchronized energization of circuit breaker's statistical characteristics, like contact operation time scatter, and the rate of decrease of dielectric strength (RDDS) of the electrode gap are discussed. The optimum closing instant is calculated according to these characteristics of VCB. Based on above analysis, a controlled closing system for shunt capacitor banks has been developed. A series of experiments demonstrate the excellent performance of this system.
{"title":"Synchronized energization of shunt capacitor banks based on statistical characteristics of vacuum circuit breakers","authors":"Duan Xiong-ying, Fang Chun-en, Zou Ji-yan, Ding Fu-hua","doi":"10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422617","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422617","url":null,"abstract":"Operation of switching capacitor banks always produce over voltages and inrush currents, which may be harmful not only to the capacitor hanks themselves but also to other adjacent components of the system. Synchronized closing has been proved an efficient solution to reduce switching surge. In the present study, a l2kV vacuum circuit breaker (VCB) with permanent magnet actuator for each pole is used as the shunt capacitor switch. The influences on synchronized energization of circuit breaker's statistical characteristics, like contact operation time scatter, and the rate of decrease of dielectric strength (RDDS) of the electrode gap are discussed. The optimum closing instant is calculated according to these characteristics of VCB. Based on above analysis, a controlled closing system for shunt capacitor banks has been developed. A series of experiments demonstrate the excellent performance of this system.","PeriodicalId":137370,"journal":{"name":"XXIst International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum, 2004. Proceedings. ISDEIV.","volume":"57 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133643008","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422668
S. Denbnovetsky, V. Melnyk, I. Melnyk, B. Tugay
Results of investigation and elaboration of glow discharge electron guns with beam power up to 500 kW and greater, oriented to technological applications, arc considered in this report. Energetic characteristics of such electron sources in dependence on discharge parameters and estimations of elaborated flection guns efficiency are given.
{"title":"Obtaining of powerful electron beams in high voltage glow discharges with cold cathodes","authors":"S. Denbnovetsky, V. Melnyk, I. Melnyk, B. Tugay","doi":"10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422668","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422668","url":null,"abstract":"Results of investigation and elaboration of glow discharge electron guns with beam power up to 500 kW and greater, oriented to technological applications, arc considered in this report. Energetic characteristics of such electron sources in dependence on discharge parameters and estimations of elaborated flection guns efficiency are given.","PeriodicalId":137370,"journal":{"name":"XXIst International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum, 2004. Proceedings. ISDEIV.","volume":"37 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123876052","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422639
L. Falkingham
This paper briefly discusses the design and development of the shieldless vacuum interrupter concept as conceived by Vacuum Interrupters Limited (VIL) in London in the early 1980¿s. The introduction of the shieldless concept was a radical departure from all previous designs and was driven by a change in design philosophy. Previously vacuum interrupter designs were complex and used a complicated multistage manufacturing process. The new design philosophy reduced the man-hours required to manufacture a vacuum interrupter by over 50% and reduced the number of components to be assembled (excluding braze material) from 16 to 7 . The success of the design is shown by the fact that over a quarter of a million devices have been manufactured to date by GEC (later ALSTOM, then AREVA) plants around the world, and after twenty years the shieldless design is still in manufacture, unchanged.
{"title":"The design and development of the shieldless vacuum interrupter concept","authors":"L. Falkingham","doi":"10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422639","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/DEIV.2004.1422639","url":null,"abstract":"This paper briefly discusses the design and development of the shieldless vacuum interrupter concept as conceived by Vacuum Interrupters Limited (VIL) in London in the early 1980¿s. The introduction of the shieldless concept was a radical departure from all previous designs and was driven by a change in design philosophy. Previously vacuum interrupter designs were complex and used a complicated multistage manufacturing process. The new design philosophy reduced the man-hours required to manufacture a vacuum interrupter by over 50% and reduced the number of components to be assembled (excluding braze material) from 16 to 7 . The success of the design is shown by the fact that over a quarter of a million devices have been manufactured to date by GEC (later ALSTOM, then AREVA) plants around the world, and after twenty years the shieldless design is still in manufacture, unchanged.","PeriodicalId":137370,"journal":{"name":"XXIst International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum, 2004. Proceedings. ISDEIV.","volume":"66 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129124662","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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