Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1533/9781845691042.22
M. Janssens
Publisher Summary Fire testing relies on fundamental measurements of physical quantities such as temperature, pressure, flow rate, mass, etc. This chapter provides an overview of the fundamental measurement techniques that are commonly used in support of flammability testing of materials. It also discusses some of the challenges that need to be overcome to perform accurate measurements. Thermocouples are by far the most commonly used sensors to measure temperature in fire tests. Objects that are exposed in a room fire environment are heated by the radiation from flames, combustion gases, and hot surfaces. A slug calorimeter is the most basic device to measure heat flux in fire tests. Also, the most commonly used type of sensors to measure the mass of a burning object is the load cell. Load cells come in many forms and shapes to facilitate their use for a wide range of applications. The objective of a measurement is to determine the value of the measurand, i.e., the physical quantity that needs to be measured. Every measurement is subject to error, no matter how carefully it is conducted. Errors of measurement may have two components, a random component and a systematic component. The former is due to a number of sources that affect a measurement in a random and uncontrolled manner. Random errors cannot be eliminated, but their effect on uncertainty may be reduced by increasing the number of repeat measurements and by applying a statistical analysis to the results.
{"title":"Fundamental measurement techniques","authors":"M. Janssens","doi":"10.1533/9781845691042.22","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845691042.22","url":null,"abstract":"Publisher Summary Fire testing relies on fundamental measurements of physical quantities such as temperature, pressure, flow rate, mass, etc. This chapter provides an overview of the fundamental measurement techniques that are commonly used in support of flammability testing of materials. It also discusses some of the challenges that need to be overcome to perform accurate measurements. Thermocouples are by far the most commonly used sensors to measure temperature in fire tests. Objects that are exposed in a room fire environment are heated by the radiation from flames, combustion gases, and hot surfaces. A slug calorimeter is the most basic device to measure heat flux in fire tests. Also, the most commonly used type of sensors to measure the mass of a burning object is the load cell. Load cells come in many forms and shapes to facilitate their use for a wide range of applications. The objective of a measurement is to determine the value of the measurand, i.e., the physical quantity that needs to be measured. Every measurement is subject to error, no matter how carefully it is conducted. Errors of measurement may have two components, a random component and a systematic component. The former is due to a number of sources that affect a measurement in a random and uncontrolled manner. Random errors cannot be eliminated, but their effect on uncertainty may be reduced by increasing the number of repeat measurements and by applying a statistical analysis to the results.","PeriodicalId":142729,"journal":{"name":"Flammability Testing of Materials Used in Construction, Transport and Mining","volume":"22 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115059727","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1533/9781845691042.2.302
H. Verakis
Publisher Summary Many different types of materials are used in the mining industry and for many different purposes. Some of the materials are of natural origin, such as wood and oil. The materials used in the mining industry generally fall into three basic categories with respect to flammability. These categories are flammable, combustible, and non-combustible. These categories are applicable to both solid and liquid materials, although technical distinctions may divide the category of combustible into subclasses. The potential fire hazard of certain materials is always a concern where safety of mining personnel and others may be compromised. The level of fire safety chosen will differ depending on the type of material and the environment in which it is used or applied. Materials used for mine stoppings and non-asbestos packing gland material used in the stuffing boxes of coal mine electrical equipment require a flame test and several other different types of tests. Three flammability tests are required for determining the fire resistance of hydraulic fluids used in coal mining equipment. Most of the tests used to evaluate a material are small-scale laboratory tests. The largest test is a heated furnace test used to determine the fire rating of mine stoppings.
{"title":"Flammability testing in the mining sector","authors":"H. Verakis","doi":"10.1533/9781845691042.2.302","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845691042.2.302","url":null,"abstract":"Publisher Summary Many different types of materials are used in the mining industry and for many different purposes. Some of the materials are of natural origin, such as wood and oil. The materials used in the mining industry generally fall into three basic categories with respect to flammability. These categories are flammable, combustible, and non-combustible. These categories are applicable to both solid and liquid materials, although technical distinctions may divide the category of combustible into subclasses. The potential fire hazard of certain materials is always a concern where safety of mining personnel and others may be compromised. The level of fire safety chosen will differ depending on the type of material and the environment in which it is used or applied. Materials used for mine stoppings and non-asbestos packing gland material used in the stuffing boxes of coal mine electrical equipment require a flame test and several other different types of tests. Three flammability tests are required for determining the fire resistance of hydraulic fluids used in coal mining equipment. Most of the tests used to evaluate a material are small-scale laboratory tests. The largest test is a heated furnace test used to determine the fire rating of mine stoppings.","PeriodicalId":142729,"journal":{"name":"Flammability Testing of Materials Used in Construction, Transport and Mining","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122568782","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00014-4
R. D. Peacock, R. Bukowski
{"title":"Flammability tests for railway passenger cars","authors":"R. D. Peacock, R. Bukowski","doi":"10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00014-4","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00014-4","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":142729,"journal":{"name":"Flammability Testing of Materials Used in Construction, Transport and Mining","volume":"18 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127046393","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00002-8
C. Wade, G. Baker
{"title":"Fire hazard assessment of wall and ceiling fire spread in rooms","authors":"C. Wade, G. Baker","doi":"10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00002-8","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00002-8","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":142729,"journal":{"name":"Flammability Testing of Materials Used in Construction, Transport and Mining","volume":"40 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131417909","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1533/9781845691042.2.217
K. Sumathipala
Publisher Summary The involvement of exposed building materials and products in fires resulting in the loss of human life often spurs an increase in regulation and new test methods to address the problem. Flammability tests range from those in which the sample is ground to a powder prior to testing to the full-scale room corner test. Variations in test methods include the specific measurement of flammability parameters being considered, the intensity and characteristics of the fire exposure, the relative scale of the test specimen, and many other factors. As a result of specific details, such as specimen orientation and fire exposure intensity, some existing regulatory test methods have been shown not to classify a type of building material or product in a manner consistent with full-scale tests that simulated actual conditions. Such failures have resulted in the development of alternative test methods for specific applications or products. As a result, there is a wide range of tests used to classify building materials and products for flammability or reaction to fire. The regulations for building materials and products to address the hazards associated with their flammability and related characteristics are found in the International Building Code and other building codes, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 101 Life Safety Code, and other such documents. Acceptance criteria and classifications refer to provisions of the International Building Code, which is the dominant model building code in the United States. Two main sets of requirements address the combustibility and the flame spread characteristics of building materials. These two main tests are described in the standards of ASTM International: ASTM E136 for combustibility and ASTM E84 for flame spread. The ASTM E84 test method also addresses the regulation for visible smoke characteristics. To address certain materials or applications, other test methods are also used in the regulation of building materials in North America.
{"title":"Flammability tests for regulation of building and construction materials","authors":"K. Sumathipala","doi":"10.1533/9781845691042.2.217","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845691042.2.217","url":null,"abstract":"Publisher Summary The involvement of exposed building materials and products in fires resulting in the loss of human life often spurs an increase in regulation and new test methods to address the problem. Flammability tests range from those in which the sample is ground to a powder prior to testing to the full-scale room corner test. Variations in test methods include the specific measurement of flammability parameters being considered, the intensity and characteristics of the fire exposure, the relative scale of the test specimen, and many other factors. As a result of specific details, such as specimen orientation and fire exposure intensity, some existing regulatory test methods have been shown not to classify a type of building material or product in a manner consistent with full-scale tests that simulated actual conditions. Such failures have resulted in the development of alternative test methods for specific applications or products. As a result, there is a wide range of tests used to classify building materials and products for flammability or reaction to fire. The regulations for building materials and products to address the hazards associated with their flammability and related characteristics are found in the International Building Code and other building codes, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 101 Life Safety Code, and other such documents. Acceptance criteria and classifications refer to provisions of the International Building Code, which is the dominant model building code in the United States. Two main sets of requirements address the combustibility and the flame spread characteristics of building materials. These two main tests are described in the standards of ASTM International: ASTM E136 for combustibility and ASTM E84 for flame spread. The ASTM E84 test method also addresses the regulation for visible smoke characteristics. To address certain materials or applications, other test methods are also used in the regulation of building materials in North America.","PeriodicalId":142729,"journal":{"name":"Flammability Testing of Materials Used in Construction, Transport and Mining","volume":"20 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128473369","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00084-3
E. Soja, C. Wade, K. Frank
{"title":"Flammability tests for building facades","authors":"E. Soja, C. Wade, K. Frank","doi":"10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00084-3","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00084-3","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":142729,"journal":{"name":"Flammability Testing of Materials Used in Construction, Transport and Mining","volume":"45 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115617425","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1533/9781845691042.2.385
Haihui Wang, B. Dlugogorski, E. Kennedy
This chapter addresses the flammability regulations for transport category airplanes, i.e., commercial airplanes used by airlines for transport of goods and people. Although flammability regulations for other aircraft types such as general aviation, commuters, agricultural, etc., are similar but not as comprehensive as those for transport category airplanes, they are beyond the scope of this chapter. In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has the responsibility for establishing and enforcing all regulatory requirements for civil aviation. FAA fire safety regulations on transport category airplanes are quite extensive and implementation and enforcement processes are considerably more intricate and involved than those imposed by other regulatory agencies on land-based and water-based transport vehicles. Passenger cabin and engine compartment components are subject to one or more of over a dozen tests. Beyond the USA, FAA regulations and FAA regulatory changes are commonly adopted by almost all national aviation authorities. Hence, FAA regulations are essentially used worldwide, and for this reason this chapter is limited to FAA flammability requirements for transport category airplanes. A brief history of the evolution of FAA flammability regulations is provided. The original flammability requirements are described. Over the years, the FAA has greatly increased the stringency of airplane flammability requirements as the state-of-the-art of available materials advanced, and/or as existing fire threats based on large-scale testing were better understood and steps were taken to mitigate them. The development of regulatory flammability requirements in the 1980s were dynamic, and are described. This chapter also covers FAA processes for approval of design and production of airplanes. These processes or their non-USA equivalents are also used by almost all national regulatory authorities. These are often more of a challenge to applicants for regulatory approval than the tests themselves.
{"title":"Tests for spontaneous ignition of solid materials","authors":"Haihui Wang, B. Dlugogorski, E. Kennedy","doi":"10.1533/9781845691042.2.385","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845691042.2.385","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter addresses the flammability regulations for transport category airplanes, i.e., commercial airplanes used by airlines for transport of goods and people. Although flammability regulations for other aircraft types such as general aviation, commuters, agricultural, etc., are similar but not as comprehensive as those for transport category airplanes, they are beyond the scope of this chapter. \u0000 \u0000In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has the responsibility for establishing and enforcing all regulatory requirements for civil aviation. FAA fire safety regulations on transport category airplanes are quite extensive and implementation and enforcement processes are considerably more intricate and involved than those imposed by other regulatory agencies on land-based and water-based transport vehicles. Passenger cabin and engine compartment components are subject to one or more of over a dozen tests. \u0000 \u0000Beyond the USA, FAA regulations and FAA regulatory changes are commonly adopted by almost all national aviation authorities. Hence, FAA regulations are essentially used worldwide, and for this reason this chapter is limited to FAA flammability requirements for transport category airplanes. A brief history of the evolution of FAA flammability regulations is provided. The original flammability requirements are described. \u0000 \u0000Over the years, the FAA has greatly increased the stringency of airplane flammability requirements as the state-of-the-art of available materials advanced, and/or as existing fire threats based on large-scale testing were better understood and steps were taken to mitigate them. The development of regulatory flammability requirements in the 1980s were dynamic, and are described. \u0000 \u0000This chapter also covers FAA processes for approval of design and production of airplanes. These processes or their non-USA equivalents are also used by almost all national regulatory authorities. These are often more of a challenge to applicants for regulatory approval than the tests themselves.","PeriodicalId":142729,"journal":{"name":"Flammability Testing of Materials Used in Construction, Transport and Mining","volume":"136 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125236487","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00098-3
{"title":"Index","authors":"","doi":"10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00098-3","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00098-3","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":142729,"journal":{"name":"Flammability Testing of Materials Used in Construction, Transport and Mining","volume":"28 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122063911","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00001-6
Birgit A.-L. Östman
{"title":"Flammability of wood construction products","authors":"Birgit A.-L. Östman","doi":"10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00001-6","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00001-6","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":142729,"journal":{"name":"Flammability Testing of Materials Used in Construction, Transport and Mining","volume":"31 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132614292","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00017-x
C. Fleischmann
{"title":"Flammability tests for upholstered furniture and mattresses","authors":"C. Fleischmann","doi":"10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00017-x","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-102801-8.00017-x","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":142729,"journal":{"name":"Flammability Testing of Materials Used in Construction, Transport and Mining","volume":"5 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132121518","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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