Jun Katagiri, S. Nomoto, M. Kusano, Makoto Watanabe
Various defects are produced during the laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) process, which can affect the quality of the fabricated part. Previous studies have revealed that the defects formed are correlated with molten pool dimensions. Powder particles are thinly spread on a substrate during the L-PBF process; hence, powder packing properties should influence the molten pool dimensions. This study evaluated the influence of particle size on powder packing properties and molten pool dimensions obtained through numerical simulations. Using particles with different average diameters (Dav) of 24, 28, 32, 36, and 40 μm, a series of discrete-element method (DEM) simulations were performed. The packing fraction obtained from DEM simulations became high as Dav became small. Several particles piled up for small Dav, whereas particles spread with almost one-particle diameter thickness for large Dav. Moreover, the packing structure was inhomogeneous and sparse for large Dav. As a result of multiphysics computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations incorporating particles’ positions as initial solid metal volume, the molten pool width obtained was hardly dependent on the Dav and was roughly equivalent to the laser spot size used in the simulations. In contrast, the molten pool depth decreased as Dav decreased. Even if the powder bed thickness is the same, small particles can form a complex packing structure by piling up, resulting in a large specific surface area. This can lead to a complex laser reflection compared to the large particles coated with almost one-particle thickness. The complex reflection absorbs the heat generated by laser irradiation inside the powder bed formed on the substrate. As a result, the depth of the molten pool formed below the substrate is reduced for small particles.
{"title":"Particle Size Effect on Powder Packing Properties and Molten Pool Dimensions in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Simulation","authors":"Jun Katagiri, S. Nomoto, M. Kusano, Makoto Watanabe","doi":"10.3390/jmmp8020071","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8020071","url":null,"abstract":"Various defects are produced during the laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) process, which can affect the quality of the fabricated part. Previous studies have revealed that the defects formed are correlated with molten pool dimensions. Powder particles are thinly spread on a substrate during the L-PBF process; hence, powder packing properties should influence the molten pool dimensions. This study evaluated the influence of particle size on powder packing properties and molten pool dimensions obtained through numerical simulations. Using particles with different average diameters (Dav) of 24, 28, 32, 36, and 40 μm, a series of discrete-element method (DEM) simulations were performed. The packing fraction obtained from DEM simulations became high as Dav became small. Several particles piled up for small Dav, whereas particles spread with almost one-particle diameter thickness for large Dav. Moreover, the packing structure was inhomogeneous and sparse for large Dav. As a result of multiphysics computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations incorporating particles’ positions as initial solid metal volume, the molten pool width obtained was hardly dependent on the Dav and was roughly equivalent to the laser spot size used in the simulations. In contrast, the molten pool depth decreased as Dav decreased. Even if the powder bed thickness is the same, small particles can form a complex packing structure by piling up, resulting in a large specific surface area. This can lead to a complex laser reflection compared to the large particles coated with almost one-particle thickness. The complex reflection absorbs the heat generated by laser irradiation inside the powder bed formed on the substrate. As a result, the depth of the molten pool formed below the substrate is reduced for small particles.","PeriodicalId":16319,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2024-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140762123","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Wei Huang, Wenjia Wang, Jinqiang Ning, H. Garmestani, Steven Y. Liang
Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is widely used in metal additive manufacturing to create geometrically complex parts, where heat transfer and its affected temperature distribution significantly influence the parts’ materials’ microstructure and the resulting materials’ properties. Among all the microstructure representations, crystallographic orientations play a paramount role in determining the mechanical properties of materials. This paper first developed a physics-based analytical model to predict the 3D temperature distribution in PBF considering heat transfer boundary conditions; heat input using point-moving heat source solutions; and heat loss due to heat conduction, convection, and radiation. The superposition principle obtained temperature distributions based on linear heat sources and linear heat loss solutions. Then, the temperature distribution was used to analytically obtain the texture grown on a substrate with random grain orientations considering columnar-to-equiaxed transition (CET). Thus, the link between process parameters and texture was established through CET models and physical rules. Ti-6Al-4V was selected to demonstrate the capability of the analytical model in a single-phase situation. By applying advanced thermal models, the accuracy of the texture prediction was evaluated based on a comparison of experimental data from the literature and past analytical model results. Hence, this work not only provides a method of the fast analytical simulation of texture prediction in the single-phase mode for metallic materials but also paves the road for subsequent studies on microstructure-affected or texture-affected materials’ properties for both academic research and industrial applications. The prediction of single-phase material texture has never been achieved before, and the scalability has been expanded.
激光粉末床熔融技术（LPBF）被广泛应用于金属增材制造领域，用于制造几何形状复杂的零件，其中热传导及其影响的温度分布对零件材料的微观结构和由此产生的材料性能有重大影响。在所有微观结构表征中，晶体学取向在决定材料力学性能方面起着至关重要的作用。本文首先建立了一个基于物理学的分析模型，以预测 PBF 中的三维温度分布，该模型考虑了传热边界条件；使用点移动热源解决方案的热输入；以及热传导、对流和辐射导致的热损失。叠加原理根据线性热源和线性热损失解决方案获得了温度分布。然后，考虑到柱状到等轴状的转变（CET），利用温度分布来分析获得在具有随机晶粒取向的基底上生长的纹理。因此，通过 CET 模型和物理规则建立了工艺参数和纹理之间的联系。选择 Ti-6Al-4V 来展示分析模型在单相情况下的能力。通过应用先进的热模型，在对比文献中的实验数据和过去的分析模型结果的基础上，对纹理预测的准确性进行了评估。因此，这项工作不仅为金属材料在单相模式下的纹理预测提供了一种快速分析模拟方法，而且为学术研究和工业应用领域后续研究受微观结构影响或纹理影响的材料性能铺平了道路。单相材料纹理的预测是前所未有的，其可扩展性也得到了扩展。
{"title":"Analytical Model of Quantitative Texture Prediction Considering Heat Transfer Based on Single-Phase Material in Laser Powder Bed Fusion","authors":"Wei Huang, Wenjia Wang, Jinqiang Ning, H. Garmestani, Steven Y. Liang","doi":"10.3390/jmmp8020070","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8020070","url":null,"abstract":"Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is widely used in metal additive manufacturing to create geometrically complex parts, where heat transfer and its affected temperature distribution significantly influence the parts’ materials’ microstructure and the resulting materials’ properties. Among all the microstructure representations, crystallographic orientations play a paramount role in determining the mechanical properties of materials. This paper first developed a physics-based analytical model to predict the 3D temperature distribution in PBF considering heat transfer boundary conditions; heat input using point-moving heat source solutions; and heat loss due to heat conduction, convection, and radiation. The superposition principle obtained temperature distributions based on linear heat sources and linear heat loss solutions. Then, the temperature distribution was used to analytically obtain the texture grown on a substrate with random grain orientations considering columnar-to-equiaxed transition (CET). Thus, the link between process parameters and texture was established through CET models and physical rules. Ti-6Al-4V was selected to demonstrate the capability of the analytical model in a single-phase situation. By applying advanced thermal models, the accuracy of the texture prediction was evaluated based on a comparison of experimental data from the literature and past analytical model results. Hence, this work not only provides a method of the fast analytical simulation of texture prediction in the single-phase mode for metallic materials but also paves the road for subsequent studies on microstructure-affected or texture-affected materials’ properties for both academic research and industrial applications. The prediction of single-phase material texture has never been achieved before, and the scalability has been expanded.","PeriodicalId":16319,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2024-03-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140365180","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Qianxi He, V. Saciotto, J. M. DePaiva, Monica C. Guimaraes, J. Kohlscheen, Marcelo M. Martins, Stephen C. Veldhuis
The conventional cutting tools used for machining titanium alloys normally experience rapid tool wear, and it is generally difficult to achieve a cutting speed over 60 m/min. In this paper, a comprehensive study on improving the machining of Ti-6Al-4V alloy is presented, focusing on high-speed end milling at 100 m/min. Three different AlCrN PVD-coated cemented carbide tools were employed over cemented solid carbide endmills. The study aimed to understand the factors influencing tool performance and, particularly, the uncommon tool wear behavior characterized by chipping on the rake face. The research methodology involves a detailed investigation of coating properties, mechanical characteristics, surface defects, and tool edge geometries. Mechanical properties were measured to assess the resistance to plastic deformation and impact fatigue fracture resistance. Surface defects were meticulously observed, and tool edge geometries were evaluated through optical microscopies. These analyses uncover the key factors contributing to the best tool performance, notably the resistance to plastic deformation (H3/E2 ratio), impact fatigue fracture resistance, and maintaining uniform tool edge geometries. The results of this study reveal that the moderate stress C3 coating outperformed the other two coatings, exhibiting a 1.5-times-longer tool life, a relatively stable cutting force curve, and favorable friction conditions in the cutting zone.
{"title":"Enhancing Tool Performance in High-Speed End Milling of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy: The Role of AlCrN PVD Coatings and Resistance to Chipping Wear","authors":"Qianxi He, V. Saciotto, J. M. DePaiva, Monica C. Guimaraes, J. Kohlscheen, Marcelo M. Martins, Stephen C. Veldhuis","doi":"10.3390/jmmp8020068","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8020068","url":null,"abstract":"The conventional cutting tools used for machining titanium alloys normally experience rapid tool wear, and it is generally difficult to achieve a cutting speed over 60 m/min. In this paper, a comprehensive study on improving the machining of Ti-6Al-4V alloy is presented, focusing on high-speed end milling at 100 m/min. Three different AlCrN PVD-coated cemented carbide tools were employed over cemented solid carbide endmills. The study aimed to understand the factors influencing tool performance and, particularly, the uncommon tool wear behavior characterized by chipping on the rake face. The research methodology involves a detailed investigation of coating properties, mechanical characteristics, surface defects, and tool edge geometries. Mechanical properties were measured to assess the resistance to plastic deformation and impact fatigue fracture resistance. Surface defects were meticulously observed, and tool edge geometries were evaluated through optical microscopies. These analyses uncover the key factors contributing to the best tool performance, notably the resistance to plastic deformation (H3/E2 ratio), impact fatigue fracture resistance, and maintaining uniform tool edge geometries. The results of this study reveal that the moderate stress C3 coating outperformed the other two coatings, exhibiting a 1.5-times-longer tool life, a relatively stable cutting force curve, and favorable friction conditions in the cutting zone.","PeriodicalId":16319,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2024-03-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140368045","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
L. Schumski, Teresa Tonn, Jens Sölter, Kerstin Avila, L. Buss, Bernhard Karpuschewski, U. Fritsching
Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) technologies possess great potential for improving the sustainability of manufacturing processes, which can reduce the absolute quantity of metalworking fluid (MWF) and also enable near-dry chips that are easier to recycle. During drilling in particular, the MWF is transported to the contact zone through internal cooling channels of the drilling tool. The MWF supply and its associated flow behaviour in the transfer from the outlet of the cooling channels to the contact zone have not been sufficiently investigated yet. Great potential is seen in the proper delivery of the MQL into the contact zone. This work aims to visualize and quantify the cooling lubricant supply into the cutting zone using the MQL technique. The visualization of the MQL application is made possible by high-speed shadowgraphic imaging. Detailed image processing is used to evaluate the resulting images. The developed evaluation routine allows for the assessment of the impact of the main process parameters such as the varying pressure of the aerosol generator and the cooling channel diameter. It is found that the oil leaves the cooling channels at the tip of the drill bit in the form of ligaments. An increase in pressure and cooling channel diameter leads to an increase in the frequency of oil ligament separation. Three main flow regimes are identified with different separation frequencies. Low inlet pressures result in intermittently dispersed droplets. The most upper pressure levels lead to an almost continuous dispersion of the oil. At the same time, the air and oil mass flow rates also increase.
{"title":"Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) Supply through Internal Cooling Channels in Drilling Processes","authors":"L. Schumski, Teresa Tonn, Jens Sölter, Kerstin Avila, L. Buss, Bernhard Karpuschewski, U. Fritsching","doi":"10.3390/jmmp8020069","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8020069","url":null,"abstract":"Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) technologies possess great potential for improving the sustainability of manufacturing processes, which can reduce the absolute quantity of metalworking fluid (MWF) and also enable near-dry chips that are easier to recycle. During drilling in particular, the MWF is transported to the contact zone through internal cooling channels of the drilling tool. The MWF supply and its associated flow behaviour in the transfer from the outlet of the cooling channels to the contact zone have not been sufficiently investigated yet. Great potential is seen in the proper delivery of the MQL into the contact zone. This work aims to visualize and quantify the cooling lubricant supply into the cutting zone using the MQL technique. The visualization of the MQL application is made possible by high-speed shadowgraphic imaging. Detailed image processing is used to evaluate the resulting images. The developed evaluation routine allows for the assessment of the impact of the main process parameters such as the varying pressure of the aerosol generator and the cooling channel diameter. It is found that the oil leaves the cooling channels at the tip of the drill bit in the form of ligaments. An increase in pressure and cooling channel diameter leads to an increase in the frequency of oil ligament separation. Three main flow regimes are identified with different separation frequencies. Low inlet pressures result in intermittently dispersed droplets. The most upper pressure levels lead to an almost continuous dispersion of the oil. At the same time, the air and oil mass flow rates also increase.","PeriodicalId":16319,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2024-03-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140368201","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This work emphasizes an innovative approach utilizing 3D imaging technology based on synchrotron radiation to assess the microstructure of second-phase iron particles and the porous structure within 3D-printed PLA/magnetic iron composites at different printing angles. The study examines how these observations relate to the material’s ductility when processed using fused filament fabrication. In particular, this study examines the impact of one processing parameter, specifically the printing angle, on the microstructure and mechanical behaviour of a polylactic acid (PLA)–iron (PLI) composite designed for magnetic actuation. Fused filament fabrication is employed to produce PLI tensile specimens, with varied printing angles to create different layups. X-ray microtomography is utilized to analyse the microstructure, while tensile mechanical properties are evaluated for all composites, with findings discussed in relation to printing angle conditions. Scanning Electron Microscopy is used to examine the fractography of broken specimens. Results indicate that the printing angle significantly influences the tensile properties and mechanical anisotropy of 3D-printed PLI composites, with an optimal 45°/45° layup enhancing tensile performance. These findings suggest that 3D-printed PLI composites offer a cost-efficient means of producing bio-sourced, light-adaptive materials with intricate magnetic actuation capabilities. By quantifying the modulation of mechanical properties based on printing parameters that influence microstructural arrangement, the research sheds light on a novel aspect of composite material characterization.
这项研究强调了一种创新方法，即利用基于同步辐射的三维成像技术，在不同打印角度下评估第二相铁颗粒的微观结构以及三维打印聚乳酸/磁性铁复合材料的多孔结构。研究探讨了这些观察结果与使用熔融长丝制造工艺加工材料时的延展性之间的关系。本研究特别考察了一个加工参数（尤其是打印角度）对设计用于磁驱动的聚乳酸（PLA）-铁（PLI）复合材料的微观结构和机械性能的影响。采用熔融长丝制造技术生产 PLI 拉伸试样，并通过不同的印刷角度来创建不同的层叠。利用 X 射线显微层析技术分析微观结构，同时评估所有复合材料的拉伸机械性能，并讨论与印刷角度条件相关的研究结果。扫描电子显微镜用于检查断裂试样的断口。结果表明，打印角度对三维打印 PLI 复合材料的拉伸性能和机械各向异性有重大影响，最佳的 45°/45° 层叠方式可提高拉伸性能。这些研究结果表明，三维打印 PLI 复合材料为生产具有复杂磁驱动能力的生物来源光适应材料提供了一种具有成本效益的方法。通过量化基于影响微结构排列的打印参数的机械性能调节，该研究揭示了复合材料表征的一个新方面。
{"title":"Effect of the Printing Angle on the Microstructure and Tensile Performance of Iron-Reinforced Polylactic Acid Composite Manufactured Using Fused Filament Fabrication","authors":"S. Guessasma, S. Belhabib","doi":"10.3390/jmmp8020065","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8020065","url":null,"abstract":"This work emphasizes an innovative approach utilizing 3D imaging technology based on synchrotron radiation to assess the microstructure of second-phase iron particles and the porous structure within 3D-printed PLA/magnetic iron composites at different printing angles. The study examines how these observations relate to the material’s ductility when processed using fused filament fabrication. In particular, this study examines the impact of one processing parameter, specifically the printing angle, on the microstructure and mechanical behaviour of a polylactic acid (PLA)–iron (PLI) composite designed for magnetic actuation. Fused filament fabrication is employed to produce PLI tensile specimens, with varied printing angles to create different layups. X-ray microtomography is utilized to analyse the microstructure, while tensile mechanical properties are evaluated for all composites, with findings discussed in relation to printing angle conditions. Scanning Electron Microscopy is used to examine the fractography of broken specimens. Results indicate that the printing angle significantly influences the tensile properties and mechanical anisotropy of 3D-printed PLI composites, with an optimal 45°/45° layup enhancing tensile performance. These findings suggest that 3D-printed PLI composites offer a cost-efficient means of producing bio-sourced, light-adaptive materials with intricate magnetic actuation capabilities. By quantifying the modulation of mechanical properties based on printing parameters that influence microstructural arrangement, the research sheds light on a novel aspect of composite material characterization.","PeriodicalId":16319,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2024-03-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140376164","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Hellen De Coninck, Jae Won Choi, Jeroen Soete, Sebastian Meyers, B. Van Hooreweder
Additively manufactured fibre-reinforced polymers are gaining traction. After the development and optimisation of a novel fibre-deposition system in a laser sintering (LS) setup, polyamide 12 specimens were produced with and without glass fibres. In this study, the relation between the crystallinity, porosity, and mechanical properties of LS specimens with and without fibres is investigated. After testing as-built LS specimens, a detrimental effect of the fibres on the specimens’ performance was observed with a decrease in UTS of 6%. The degree of crystallinity remained the same; however, a porosity content of 2.6% was observed in specimens with fibres. These pores can have a negative influence on the bonding between the fibres and the matrix. To investigate the influence of the pores, warm isostatic pressing (WIP) was performed on LS specimens with and without fibres. The WIP process shows a positive influence on the specimens without fibres, resulting in an increase in UTS of 8.5%. The influence of the WIP process on specimens with fibres, however, is much less pronounced, with an increase in UTS of only 2%. Neither the crystallinity nor the porosity are the cause of the less-than-expected increase in UTS in LS specimens with fibres. A number of hypotheses and mitigation strategies are provided.
添加式制造的纤维增强聚合物正受到越来越多的关注。在对激光烧结（LS）装置中的新型纤维沉积系统进行开发和优化后，生产出了带玻璃纤维和不带玻璃纤维的聚酰胺 12 试样。在本研究中，我们研究了有纤维和无纤维 LS 试样的结晶度、孔隙率和机械性能之间的关系。在对竣工的 LS 试样进行测试后，发现纤维对试样的性能有不利影响，其 UTS 降低了 6%。结晶度保持不变，但在带有纤维的试样中观察到 2.6% 的孔隙率。这些孔隙会对纤维与基体之间的粘合产生负面影响。为了研究孔隙的影响，对含有和不含纤维的 LS 试样进行了温等静压（WIP）。WIP 工艺对无纤维试样产生了积极影响，使其 UTS 增加了 8.5%。然而，WIP 工艺对有纤维试样的影响要小得多，其 UTS 仅提高了 2%。结晶度和孔隙率都不是导致带纤维 LS 试样 UTS 增幅低于预期的原因。本文提出了一些假设和缓解策略。
{"title":"Improving the Mechanical Properties of GlassFibre-Reinforced Laser-Sintered Parts Based on Degree of Crystallinity and Porosity Content Using a Warm Isostatic Pressing (WIP) Process","authors":"Hellen De Coninck, Jae Won Choi, Jeroen Soete, Sebastian Meyers, B. Van Hooreweder","doi":"10.3390/jmmp8020064","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8020064","url":null,"abstract":"Additively manufactured fibre-reinforced polymers are gaining traction. After the development and optimisation of a novel fibre-deposition system in a laser sintering (LS) setup, polyamide 12 specimens were produced with and without glass fibres. In this study, the relation between the crystallinity, porosity, and mechanical properties of LS specimens with and without fibres is investigated. After testing as-built LS specimens, a detrimental effect of the fibres on the specimens’ performance was observed with a decrease in UTS of 6%. The degree of crystallinity remained the same; however, a porosity content of 2.6% was observed in specimens with fibres. These pores can have a negative influence on the bonding between the fibres and the matrix. To investigate the influence of the pores, warm isostatic pressing (WIP) was performed on LS specimens with and without fibres. The WIP process shows a positive influence on the specimens without fibres, resulting in an increase in UTS of 8.5%. The influence of the WIP process on specimens with fibres, however, is much less pronounced, with an increase in UTS of only 2%. Neither the crystallinity nor the porosity are the cause of the less-than-expected increase in UTS in LS specimens with fibres. A number of hypotheses and mitigation strategies are provided.","PeriodicalId":16319,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2024-03-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140381365","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This study’s novel 13Ni400 maraging steel parts are additively manufactured through a selective laser melting process. The Taguchi approach is adopted to evaluate the combined influence of process variables (energy density), viz., laser power, layer thickness, hatch spacing, and scan speed, on responses like relative density, microhardness, surface roughness, and tensile strength. The powder and material characterization studies are conducted in terms of an optical microscope, scanning electron microscope (SEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and fractography analysis to explore the pre- and post-fabrication scenarios of the build parts. The consequences of energy density and process variables are studied through meticulous parametric studies. Finally, the optimum level of built parameters is identified and validated by a confirmative test predicting an average error of ~1.80%. This work is proficient in producing defect-free parts with maximum densification and improved mechanical properties for newly developed 13Ni-400 maraging steel by the selective laser melting (SLM) technique.
{"title":"Parametric Optimization of Selective Laser Melted 13Ni400 Maraging Steel by Taguchi Method","authors":"Viraj Vishwas Patil, C. P. Mohanty, K. Prashanth","doi":"10.3390/jmmp8020052","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8020052","url":null,"abstract":"This study’s novel 13Ni400 maraging steel parts are additively manufactured through a selective laser melting process. The Taguchi approach is adopted to evaluate the combined influence of process variables (energy density), viz., laser power, layer thickness, hatch spacing, and scan speed, on responses like relative density, microhardness, surface roughness, and tensile strength. The powder and material characterization studies are conducted in terms of an optical microscope, scanning electron microscope (SEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and fractography analysis to explore the pre- and post-fabrication scenarios of the build parts. The consequences of energy density and process variables are studied through meticulous parametric studies. Finally, the optimum level of built parameters is identified and validated by a confirmative test predicting an average error of ~1.80%. This work is proficient in producing defect-free parts with maximum densification and improved mechanical properties for newly developed 13Ni-400 maraging steel by the selective laser melting (SLM) technique.","PeriodicalId":16319,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2024-03-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140081947","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Alireza Vahedi Nemani, M. Ghaffari, Kazem Sabet Bokati, N. Valizade, Elham Afshari, Ali Nasiri
Copper-based materials have long been used for their outstanding thermal and electrical conductivities in various applications, such as heat exchangers, induction heat coils, cooling channels, radiators, and electronic connectors. The development of advanced copper alloys has broadened their utilization to include structural applications in harsh service conditions found in industries like oil and gas, marine, power plants, and water treatment, where good corrosion resistance and a combination of high strength, wear, and fatigue tolerance are critical. These advanced multi-component structures often have complex designs and intricate geometries, requiring extensive metallurgical processing routes and the joining of the individual components into a final structure. Additive manufacturing (AM) has revolutionized the way complex structures are designed and manufactured. It has reduced the processing steps, assemblies, and tooling while also eliminating the need for joining processes. However, the high thermal conductivity of copper and its high reflectivity to near-infrared radiation present challenges in the production of copper alloys using fusion-based AM processes, especially with Yb-fiber laser-based techniques. To overcome these difficulties, various solutions have been proposed, such as the use of high-power, low-wavelength laser sources, preheating the build chamber, employing low thermal conductivity building platforms, and adding alloying elements or composite particles to the feedstock material. This article systematically reviews different aspects of AM processing of common industrial copper alloys and composites, including copper-chrome, copper-nickel, tin-bronze, nickel-aluminum bronze, copper-carbon composites, copper-ceramic composites, and copper-metal composites. It focuses on the state-of-the-art AM techniques employed for processing different copper-based materials and the associated technological and metallurgical challenges, optimized processing variables, the impact of post-printing heat treatments, the resulting microstructural features, physical properties, mechanical performance, and corrosion response of the AM-fabricated parts. Where applicable, a comprehensive comparison of the results with those of their conventionally fabricated counterparts is provided.
长期以来，铜基材料因其出色的导热性和导电性而被广泛应用于各种领域，如热交换器、感应热线圈、冷却通道、散热器和电子连接器等。随着先进铜合金的发展，其应用领域也扩大到石油天然气、海洋、发电厂和水处理等行业中恶劣工况条件下的结构应用，在这些应用中，良好的耐腐蚀性以及高强度、耐磨损和耐疲劳性的结合是至关重要的。这些先进的多组件结构通常具有复杂的设计和错综复杂的几何形状，需要大量的冶金加工工艺，并将各个组件连接成最终结构。快速成型制造（AM）彻底改变了复杂结构的设计和制造方式。它减少了加工步骤、组件和工具，同时还省去了连接工序。然而，铜的高热导率及其对近红外辐射的高反射率给使用基于熔融技术的增材制造工艺（尤其是基于掺镱光纤的激光技术）生产铜合金带来了挑战。为了克服这些困难，人们提出了各种解决方案，例如使用高功率、低波长激光源，预热构建室，采用低导热构建平台，以及在原料材料中添加合金元素或复合颗粒。本文系统回顾了常见工业铜合金和复合材料 AM 加工的各个方面，包括铜铬、铜镍、锡青铜、镍铝青铜、铜碳复合材料、铜陶瓷复合材料和铜金属复合材料。报告重点介绍了加工不同铜基材料所采用的最先进的 AM 技术，以及相关的技术和冶金挑战、优化的加工变量、印刷后热处理的影响、AM 制成部件的微观结构特征、物理性能、机械性能和腐蚀响应。在适当的情况下，还提供了这些结果与传统制造的同类结果的综合比较。
{"title":"Advancements in Additive Manufacturing for Copper-Based Alloys and Composites: A Comprehensive Review","authors":"Alireza Vahedi Nemani, M. Ghaffari, Kazem Sabet Bokati, N. Valizade, Elham Afshari, Ali Nasiri","doi":"10.3390/jmmp8020054","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8020054","url":null,"abstract":"Copper-based materials have long been used for their outstanding thermal and electrical conductivities in various applications, such as heat exchangers, induction heat coils, cooling channels, radiators, and electronic connectors. The development of advanced copper alloys has broadened their utilization to include structural applications in harsh service conditions found in industries like oil and gas, marine, power plants, and water treatment, where good corrosion resistance and a combination of high strength, wear, and fatigue tolerance are critical. These advanced multi-component structures often have complex designs and intricate geometries, requiring extensive metallurgical processing routes and the joining of the individual components into a final structure. Additive manufacturing (AM) has revolutionized the way complex structures are designed and manufactured. It has reduced the processing steps, assemblies, and tooling while also eliminating the need for joining processes. However, the high thermal conductivity of copper and its high reflectivity to near-infrared radiation present challenges in the production of copper alloys using fusion-based AM processes, especially with Yb-fiber laser-based techniques. To overcome these difficulties, various solutions have been proposed, such as the use of high-power, low-wavelength laser sources, preheating the build chamber, employing low thermal conductivity building platforms, and adding alloying elements or composite particles to the feedstock material. This article systematically reviews different aspects of AM processing of common industrial copper alloys and composites, including copper-chrome, copper-nickel, tin-bronze, nickel-aluminum bronze, copper-carbon composites, copper-ceramic composites, and copper-metal composites. It focuses on the state-of-the-art AM techniques employed for processing different copper-based materials and the associated technological and metallurgical challenges, optimized processing variables, the impact of post-printing heat treatments, the resulting microstructural features, physical properties, mechanical performance, and corrosion response of the AM-fabricated parts. Where applicable, a comprehensive comparison of the results with those of their conventionally fabricated counterparts is provided.","PeriodicalId":16319,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2024-03-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140082217","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
C. Spurk, Frederik Dietrich, M. Hummel, A. Gillner, F. Beckmann, J. Moosmann, C. Häfner
Laser beam welding as a reliable tool for high-precision joining of batteries or microelectronics is more and more the choice for achieving reproducible results in production processes. In addition to a high automation capability, the precise control of the energy deposition into the material plays an important role, especially when highly reflective materials, such as copper or aluminum, must be welded together. Alongside the use of highly brilliant fiber lasers in the near-infrared range with a focal diameter of a few tens of micrometers, diode lasers in the wavelength range of 445 nm are increasingly being used. Here, beam diameters of a few hundred micrometers can be achieved. With a wavelength of 445 nm, the absorptivity in copper can be increased by more than a factor of 10 compared to a near-infrared laser beam sources in solid state at room temperature. This paper presents the in situ X-ray observation of laser welding processes on CuSn6 with a laser beam source with a wavelength of 445 nm using synchrotron radiation at DESY Petra III Beamline P07 EH4 in Hamburg, Germany. For the experiments, the laser radiation was focused via two separate optics to focal diameters of 362 µm and 609 µm. To characterize the dynamics of the vapor capillaries depending on the different focal diameters dF, the parameters were varied with respect to laser power PL and feed rate v. For the investigations, a synchrotron beam of 2 × 2 mm2 in size with a photon energy of 89 keV was used, and the material samples were analyzed by means of phase-contrast videography to show the boundaries between solid, liquid, and gaseous material phases. The results of this paper show the welding depths achieved and how the geometry of the vapor capillary behaves by changing the focal diameter, laser power and feed rate.
{"title":"In Situ Synchrotron Investigations of Beam Diameter Influence on Vapor Capillary Formation during Laser Beam Welding of Copper Alloy with a Blue Laser Beam Source","authors":"C. Spurk, Frederik Dietrich, M. Hummel, A. Gillner, F. Beckmann, J. Moosmann, C. Häfner","doi":"10.3390/jmmp8020047","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8020047","url":null,"abstract":"Laser beam welding as a reliable tool for high-precision joining of batteries or microelectronics is more and more the choice for achieving reproducible results in production processes. In addition to a high automation capability, the precise control of the energy deposition into the material plays an important role, especially when highly reflective materials, such as copper or aluminum, must be welded together. Alongside the use of highly brilliant fiber lasers in the near-infrared range with a focal diameter of a few tens of micrometers, diode lasers in the wavelength range of 445 nm are increasingly being used. Here, beam diameters of a few hundred micrometers can be achieved. With a wavelength of 445 nm, the absorptivity in copper can be increased by more than a factor of 10 compared to a near-infrared laser beam sources in solid state at room temperature. This paper presents the in situ X-ray observation of laser welding processes on CuSn6 with a laser beam source with a wavelength of 445 nm using synchrotron radiation at DESY Petra III Beamline P07 EH4 in Hamburg, Germany. For the experiments, the laser radiation was focused via two separate optics to focal diameters of 362 µm and 609 µm. To characterize the dynamics of the vapor capillaries depending on the different focal diameters dF, the parameters were varied with respect to laser power PL and feed rate v. For the investigations, a synchrotron beam of 2 × 2 mm2 in size with a photon energy of 89 keV was used, and the material samples were analyzed by means of phase-contrast videography to show the boundaries between solid, liquid, and gaseous material phases. The results of this paper show the welding depths achieved and how the geometry of the vapor capillary behaves by changing the focal diameter, laser power and feed rate.","PeriodicalId":16319,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2024-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140087774","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Falko Böttcher, I. Schaarschmidt, J. Edelmann, Andreas Schubert
Shape-memory alloys set high demands on the production technologies being used. During cutting, continuous heat input and mechanical stress have an undesirable influence on the shape-memory effect. Pulsed electrochemical machining (PECM), which is based on anodic dissolution, enables force-free machining without thermomechanical influence on the edge-zone properties of the workpiece. Depending on the desired geometry, the development of a customized PECM fixture is necessary. The design of the fixtures is often based on the experiences of the designers and manufacturers, which often results in an estimation of the functionally critical dimensions. For this reason, the study focuses on a methodical approach for evaluating crucial fixture dimensions using knowledge of the specific material dissolution behavior linked with a numerical simulation model. It has been shown that the shape-memory alloy NiMnGa has a non-linear dissolution behavior in sodium nitrate. A reduction of stray currents up to 20% resulting from a lateral gap between the cathode and electrical insulation was demonstrated using numerical simulation. The study shows that a low cathode shaping height has the strongest influence on precise processing. Varying the process parameters allowed for the lateral gap to be adjusted between 0.15 and 0.25 mm.
{"title":"Simulation-Assisted Tool Design for Pulsed Electrochemical Machining of Magnetic Shape-Memory Alloys","authors":"Falko Böttcher, I. Schaarschmidt, J. Edelmann, Andreas Schubert","doi":"10.3390/jmmp8020046","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8020046","url":null,"abstract":"Shape-memory alloys set high demands on the production technologies being used. During cutting, continuous heat input and mechanical stress have an undesirable influence on the shape-memory effect. Pulsed electrochemical machining (PECM), which is based on anodic dissolution, enables force-free machining without thermomechanical influence on the edge-zone properties of the workpiece. Depending on the desired geometry, the development of a customized PECM fixture is necessary. The design of the fixtures is often based on the experiences of the designers and manufacturers, which often results in an estimation of the functionally critical dimensions. For this reason, the study focuses on a methodical approach for evaluating crucial fixture dimensions using knowledge of the specific material dissolution behavior linked with a numerical simulation model. It has been shown that the shape-memory alloy NiMnGa has a non-linear dissolution behavior in sodium nitrate. A reduction of stray currents up to 20% resulting from a lateral gap between the cathode and electrical insulation was demonstrated using numerical simulation. The study shows that a low cathode shaping height has the strongest influence on precise processing. Varying the process parameters allowed for the lateral gap to be adjusted between 0.15 and 0.25 mm.","PeriodicalId":16319,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2024-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140088163","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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