Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine最新文献

Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD) is the leading cause of mortality in juvenile ex situ Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and is increasingly reported as a cause of morbidity and mortality in juvenile African elephants (Loxodonta africana). A bleeding diathesis, with signs suggestive of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), has been described in cases of EEHV-HD. Results of platelet count, fibrinogen concentration, and D-dimer concentration are included in the International Society on Thrombosis and Hemostasis (ISTH) overt DIC scoring system. The objective of this study was to establish reference intervals for these laboratory assays in healthy juvenile elephants in order to evaluate the ISTH DIC scoring system for these species. Twenty-four African and 20 Asian elephants, between 1 and 15 yr of age, were enrolled in this study. Blood samples were obtained from each individual at a single point in time for D-dimer concentration, platelet count, fibrinogen concentration, and EEHV qPCR. All EEHV qPCR results were negative. No significant difference existed between species for D-dimer concentration (P = 0.17) or platelet counts (P = 0.052). Asian elephants had significantly higher fibrinogen concentrations (320.05 ± 44.58 mg/dl; mean ± SE) compared with African elephants (256.13 ± 29.35 mg/dl, P < 0.001). Fibrinogen was significantly higher in male (273.89 ± 27.64 mg/dl) compared with female (245.47 ± 25.57 mg/dl) African elephants (P = 0.02). There was a moderately strong positive correlation between platelet count and age in African elephants (R = 0.51, P = 0.03). The other analytes did not differ significantly with age and sex for either species (P > 0.05). Reference intervals for D-dimer concentration, fibrinogen concentration, and automated platelet counts were determined for each species using the robust and the parametric methods. Results from this study provide the foundational knowledge required for the development of an overt DIC scoring system in juvenile elephants with EEHV-HD.

Mountain tapirs (Tapirus pinchaque) are endangered land mammals and there are few descriptions of urinary diseases that affect them. This report describes a 17-year-old mountain tapir presenting with hyporexia and chronic weight loss caused by unilateral nephrolithiasis and hydronephrosis. Unilateral nephrectomy returned this mountain tapir to normal weight with resolution of clinical signs. Characteristics of the smooth circular uroliths found in this mountain tapir were consistent with the rarer type II variant found in horses and was composed of 100% calcium carbonate. Type II uroliths in horses typically have amorphous shapes and include phosphate. This case showed that mountain tapirs are susceptible to nephrolithiasis, which may progress to hydronephrosis, and that unilateral nephrectomy is a feasible treatment. Despite the success of nephrectomy in this case, further investigation is required in captive mountain tapirs to more clearly understand management of nephrolithiasis and how it equates with what is known in horses.

Both blood and liver samples can be used to evaluate vitamin, mineral, and heavy metal concentrations clinically. In elasmobranchs, it is unknown whether circulating concentrations of these analytes reflect concentrations in storage organs such as the liver. The purpose of this study was to report hepatic concentrations of select heavy metals and to compare concentrations of select vitamins and minerals in paired blood and liver samples in captive elasmobranchs. Blood (serum or lithium heparinized plasma) samples collected perimortem and hepatic tissue samples collected during necropsy from 27 elasmobranchs were included. Taxa (order, species), sex (male, female), and age class (immature, mature) were recorded. Vitamin A, vitamin E, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc were measured in both blood and liver. Arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and thallium concentrations were reported for liver only. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each analyte. Statistical analysis was performed with scatter plots with fitted regression lines, box plots, and a multiple linear regression model for multivariate analysis. Only the correlation between blood and liver concentrations of molybdenum (P < 0.001), cobalt (P = 0.001), iron (P = 0.014), and vitamin A (P = 0.020) were statistically significant. Significant differences in blood manganese and molybdenum, and hepatic vitamin A, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc were found between taxonomic orders. However, no differences based on sex or age class were detected. Future research is needed to elucidate the clinical significance of circulating versus tissue vitamin and mineral concentrations in elasmobranchs.

Physiological stress responses are well documented among squamate reptiles, but much less so among some endangered species of snakes, such as West Indian boas (genus Chilabothrus). The aims of this study include identifying and establishing a hematologic reference interval as well as determining the effect of animal holding time on hematologic parameters and blood lactate in Virgin Islands boas (Chilabothrus granti). A total of 49 wild adult Virgin Islands boas (22 males, 27 females) were collected during two study periods in the US Virgin Islands. Blood samples were obtained after a median of 89 min postcapture (T1) and again the following day, approximately 12 h later (T2). Blood lactate concentration was significantly lower at T2 (P < 0.001) compared to T1. Estimated total white blood cell (WBC) count did not differ between T1 and T2 (P = 0.19). Heterophils and azurophils were significantly increased at T2 (P < 0.001 and P < 0.001, respectively), and lymphocytes were significantly decreased (P < 0.001) at T2. Eosinophils were significantly increased at T2 (P = 0.02). No significant differences were noted in either monocytes or basophils (P = 0.83 and P = 0.30, respectively). This study demonstrates that stress associated with animal capture and handling may alter the hemogram in this species, resulting in increased levels of circulating heterophils, decreased levels of lymphocytes, and a significant increase in azurophils. This study also demonstrates that blood lactate concentration in Virgin Islands boas is elevated following collection and handling and decreases significantly after an extended holding period.

Chelonians commonly present to the North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine's Turtle Rescue Team (TRT) for shell injuries. Several shell repair protocols are described in the literature, but many of these techniques are invasive, require a surgical plane of anesthesia, can result in infections or iatrogenic trauma, and are inaccessible in the wildlife rehabilitation setting. The objective of this study was to retrospectively evaluate three minimally invasive and inexpensive carapace fracture repair methods used at the TRT from 2012-2021. In total, 1,761 turtles presented with carapace fractures. Fracture repairs were performed in 428 turtles and were successful in 236 patients (55.1%). A successful outcome was defined as a fracture that was stable on manual palpation and the patient survived to release. The fracture did not stabilize but the subject survived to release in 13 cases (3.0%). Out of the repairs performed, there were 110 (25.7%) hook-and-wire procedures, 93 (21.7%) fragment removals, 94 (21.9%) marginal hole-and-wire repairs, and 131 (30.6%) repairs that included a combination of procedures. Success rates were highest for fragment removal (69.9%), followed by marginal hole- and-wire repairs (63.8%). The combined hook-and-wire procedures with fragment removal achieved a success rate of 57.9%, while hook-and-wire procedures alone saw a success rate of 47.3%. No complications arising from stabilization procedures were reported. The odds of success were significantly higher in adult males (OR = 3.904, 95% CI = 1.200, 12.705) and females (OR = 3.636, 95% CI = 1.087, 12.158) compared to juvenile turtles. A prognostic scoring system was developed based on published literature and clinical experience at TRT; the odds of success decreased as the prognosis moved from excellent to grave (OR = 0.330, 95% CI = 0.233, 0.458). These minimally invasive techniques should be considered in future chelonian fracture repairs.

The diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin) is a unique turtle species living in brackish water, with numerous factors contributing to population declines throughout its range along the US eastern and Gulf of Mexico coasts and Bermuda. Health assessments, including clinical examination (n = 37), CBC and plasma biochemistry (n = 25), and priority chelonian pathogen testing (herpesvirus, ranavirus, adenovirus, tortoise intranuclear coccidiosis [TINC], and Mycoplasma spp.; n = 37) were performed on terrapins from two variably successful nesting populations in Jamaica Bay, an urban estuarine bay in New York City (Ruler's Bar Hassock [RBH] and John F. Kennedy International Airport [JFK]). Reference values were determined for clinicopathologic tests. The terrapins from the growing population at JFK had significantly higher magnesium, blood urea nitrogen, and γ-glutamyl transferase, as well as lower eosinophils, prealbumin, and albumin, than those from the declining RBH population. Although increased magnesium may support normal egg production and eosinophilia may support parasitic infection, no other clinicopathologic differences between the populations are considered likely to be correlated with reproductive success. No systemic physical examination abnormalities or hemoparasites were identified. All individuals were negative for herpesvirus, ranavirus, and TINC. Diamondback terrapins in New York City have a high prevalence of a novel Mycoplasma sp. (86% of samples tested were positive). A novel adenovirus was also identified with 19% prevalence. Diamondback terrapins that were positive for this novel Mycoplasma sp. or adenovirus exhibited no clinical signs, physical examination abnormalities, or clinicopathologic alterations. These findings support the growing body of evidence that some species of Mycoplasma and adenoviruses may be asymptomatically harbored by some chelonian species, though their importance to ecosystem health or potential pathogenicity to other chelonians warrants further studies and monitoring.

Respiratory diseases in snow leopards (Panthera uncia) are poorly described. A retrospective study was performed in snow leopards housed in two zoos between January 1997 and June 2022. Nearly half (45%, 33/73) of the individuals evaluated had at least one episode of respiratory signs in the 25-yr study period, and more than half of those individuals (61%, 20/33) experienced respiratory disease more than once in their lifetime. Medical records of individuals with respiratory disease were assessed for clinical signs, diagnostic procedures, etiology, treatment, illness duration, and clinical outcome. Nasal discharge was the most common clinical sign reported overall (65%, 45/69). Tachypnea/dyspnea (75%, 3/4), lethargy (100%, 4/4), and weight loss/inappetence (100%, 4/4) were frequently noted in respiratory cases that resulted in death. Many respiratory cases (67%, 46/69) were either confirmed or suspected to be infectious in origin. Culture identified respiratory pathogens in most cases (95%, 21/22) in which it was performed. Among the cases for which a pathogen was identified, Mycoplasma spp. was the most common (61%, 14/23). Bordetella bronchiseptica was also frequently diagnosed (39%, 9/23) and was the sole pathogen identified in two cases. Both Mycoplasma spp. and B. bronchiseptica were significantly more likely to be associated with clinical disease in neonates and juveniles than in adults and geriatrics. To our knowledge, these are the first documented cases of B. bronchiseptica-associated respiratory disease in nondomestic felids in the peer-reviewed literature. Feline herpesvirus-1 and feline calicivirus were infrequently detected, despite the use of primarily inactivated vaccinations with documented low immunogenicity. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was commonly cultured in mortality cases (75%, 3/4). Coinfections were common (91%, 21/23), with only two cases identifying a single agent. Antibiogram results suggest that aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, trimethoprim-sulfa, enrofloxacin, and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid were the most effective antibiotic choices for the identified respiratory pathogens.

Northern Sulawesi babirusa (Babyrousa celebensis) are endangered wild pigs native to the Indonesian island of Sulawesi. Since the 1970s, babirusa have been managed and bred in zoological institutions. To date, an analysis of the medical conditions affecting this species has not been reported. A retrospective study of the causes of morbidity and mortality in babirusa managed from 1995-2021 by Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) accredited institutions in North America was performed. Medical (149) and associated pathology records (41) from babirusa at nine institutions were reviewed. Trends associated with age, sex, cause of death, disease process, and organ system were examined. Of the 503 morbidity events, the most common systems affected were musculoskeletal (n = 184), digestive (n = 119), and integumentary (n = 106). Adult males were more likely than adult females to experience dental trauma due to the presence of large maxillary canine tusks. The study population's average lifespan was 12.1 years for animals surviving at least one year, and females lived longer than males. Inflammatory processes were the cause of death in eight individuals. Non-infectious disease processes, particularly degenerative joint disease (n = 6), neoplasia (n = 5), and anesthesia-related (n = 5) were the other common causes of death/euthanasia. Organ systems most commonly affected by disease process causing mortality were the digestive (n = 11), musculoskeletal (n = 10), cardiovascular (n = 5), and respiratory (n = 5). Given the high prevalence of degenerative joint disease, captive management of babirusa should focus on developing strategies for early diagnosis, management, and prevention of joint disease. Consideration should also be given to the high incidence of tusk trauma, which may be decreased by modifications in exhibit design.

Immersion bath in high doses of tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) and eugenol is a common euthanasia method for fish, causing rapid cessation of opercular movements. However, in previous studies where cardiac contractions persisted, despite dosages of MS-222 as high as 1000 mg/L, the hypothesis was advanced that apnea could prevent effective euthanasia. The objective of the study was to determine if continuous topical delivery (CTD) over the gills of MS-222 or clove oil (CO) would result in cardiac arrest at 60 minutes, without recovery after placement in fresh water for an additional 60-minute period. Thirty-six juvenile red head Tapajos eartheaters (Geophagus pyrocephalus) were randomly divided into six experimental groups (six fish/group, concentration of the anesthetics indicated in mg/L): (1) Bath MS 500; (2) CTD MS 500; (3) Bath CO 500; (4) CTD CO 500; (5) Bath CO 1000; (6) CTD CO 1000. The proportion of fish with a heartbeat at 60 minutes and the mean time to cardiac arrest (P < 0.001) were significantly different among groups. At 60 minutes, 6/6 and 5/6 of fish in the Bath CO 1000 group and the Bath CO 500 group experienced cardiac arrest, respectively, while only 1/6 and 3/6 of fish in the CTD CO 500 group and the CTD CO 1000, respectively, did. By 120 minutes, all fish except two fish in the CTD MS 500 group had undergone cardiac arrest. In contrast to our hypothesis, mean time to cardiac arrest occurred faster in immersion bath than in CTD at both concentrations of CO (P ≤ 0.022).

Cardiac diseases in great apes are frequently diagnosed late in their life or at postmortem. Echocardiography allows early detection and diagnosis of heart diseases in great apes. Between January 2018 and October 2019, Mandai Wildlife Group (MWG) conducted health evaluations on 22 captive orangutans, including 10 Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), eight Sumatran orangutans (Pongo abelii), and four hybrid orangutans (Pongo spp.). Fourteen male and eight female orangutans were evaluated. Cardiac assessment was conducted in partnership with the Great Ape Heart Project (GAHP). Subjects were anesthetized with either tiletamine/zolazepam intramuscularly or a combination of tiletamine/zolazepam and medetomidine intramuscularly followed by ketamine intravenously. All patients were intubated and maintained on isoflurane gas anesthesia. Trans-thoracic echocardiography (TTE) was completed according to the standards established by the Great Ape Heart Project. Noninvasive systemic blood pressure (NIBP) and 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) were conducted on all the orangutans. Of the 22 subjects evaluated, 18 had echocardiogram within an expected range. One adult male hybrid and one adult male Bornean orangutan have low fractional shortening (FS) because of the effect of medetomidine in the anesthetic protocol. One adult male Sumatran orangutan was diagnosed with mild left ventricle dysfunction and treated with enalapril 0.1 mg/kg PO SID. One adult female hybrid orangutan was diagnosed with an aortic aneurysm of the ascending aorta. Regular cardiac assessment in orangutans allows early detection of heart disease and enables proactive prevention of heart failure. The study also provided preliminary data establishing heart parameters for the two orangutan species and their hybrids.