Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine最新文献

The garden dormouse (Eliomys quercinus) is commonly used as model species for studies on hibernation, which may involve surgery. Similar to laboratory rodents, inhalational anesthesia, which does not provide analgesia, is often performed for surgical procedures. We retrospectively compared cardiorespiratory effects between ketamine-butorphanol-medetomidine (KBMed), ketamine-butorphanol-midazolam (KBMid) and butorphanol-medetomidine-midazolam (BMM) administered SC in 48 garden dormice undergoing laparotomy for bio-logger implantation plus tissue (liver, brown fat) biopsy surgery (n = 48/48 [28 females, 20 males] ∼5 wk old) and bio-logger explantation surgery (n = 42/48 [24 females, 18 males], ∼1 yr old). Doses were ketamine (40 mg/kg), medetomidine (0.2 mg/kg), midazolam (1 mg/kg), and butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg). Anesthesia was supplemented with isoflurane (1.29 ± 0.53%) in 100% oxygen via facemask; meloxicam and lactated Ringer's solution were administered SC; and a splash block using lidocaine was performed. Sedation score and recovery time were recorded. The pedal withdrawal reflex, pulse rate, RR, SpO₂, and temperature were monitored throughout the laparotomy. The effects of group and time were tested using linear mixed-effect models, with individuals as random factor. Sedation score was the deepest with KBMed. Pulse rate, RR, and temperature remained within physiological ranges for KBMid, but were decreased with KBMed and BMM (P < 0.001). SpO₂ remained >96% in all groups. Recovery time was shortest with KBMid (20.8 ± 18.1 min); KBMed and BMM required reversal with atipamezole after 60 min, otherwise recovery time would have been prolonged. All combinations allowed for appropriate intraoperative analgesia, cardiorespiratory stability, and adequate postoperative wound healing.

All of the animals in a group of 58 juvenile caiman lizards (Dracaena guianensis) imported to Europe from a breeding farm in Peru presented, one after the other, with prostration, dyspnea, and anorexia. Six animals that died or were euthanized were examined by histopathology, PCR for the detection of ferlaviruses, adenoviruses, reoviruses (n = 3), and cryptosporidia, and virus isolation in cell culture (n = 4). The genomes of two virus isolates were sequenced by nanopore sequencing. Histopathology showed interstitial proliferative pneumonia, multifocal lymphocytic pancreatitis with acinar atrophy, mild hypertrophic enteritis with cryptosporidiosis, mild multifocal proliferative mixed-cell rhinitis, and diffuse mild hepatic lipidosis. PCRs were positive for ferlaviruses (4/6 lizards), adenoviruses (2/6), and cryptosporidia (2/6). Ferlaviruses were isolated from four animals and subsequent genome sequencing showed the virus to be closely related to a ferlavirus previously described in green anacondas (Eunectes murinus) in Hong Kong. Sequencing of the adenovirus PCR products indicated that these were a novel barthadenovirus (previously atadenovirus). The cryptosporidia were identified as Cryptosporidium avium. Although multiple pathogens were detected in these animals, ferlavirus infection is the most likely cause of the severe disease outbreak. Stress and the other pathogens likely contributed to disease severity. This is an example of the role the pet trade can play in the international movement of pathogens, and confirms again that lizards can be affected by ferlaviruses.

Failure of oviposition in reptiles is either based on a pre- or postovulatory condition. Although postovulatory dystocia is easier to diagnose and treat, and undoubtedly pathological, the pathophysiology of failure of ovulation is poorly understood. The common perception is that of a static condition, a "follicular stasis," and ovariectomy is the commonly recommended treatment. Unovulated follicles undergo a resorptive process. It is important to distinguish between follicular atresia (FA) and follicular regression (FR). FA is the selecting force on individual follicles during follicular development, a common and physiological process in all vertebrate species for limiting clutch and litter size. FR is the process of "follicular stasis," the elimination of entire batches of late mature follicles in nonmammalian species. The etiology of FR is likely multifactorial, but there is evidence for a physiological, adaptive process to environmental or social conditions, observed not only in captivity but also in natural habitats. Although the complete resorption may take several months and some forms (in particular, cystic atresia) may be mistaken for a pathological condition, FR is neither a static nor a pathological process per se. It is, however, undisputed that some affected reptiles suffer from the consequences of accumulated unovulated follicles, including yolk coelomitis, metabolic derangements, and mechanical impacts of the coelomic mass effect. In addition, the endocrinological impact of corpora atretica (whitening bodies) on the ovulation of future batches of follicles and the welfare of affected animals remain unknown. Although ovariectomy may in fact be the best option for a companion pet reptile, premature interventions and loss of reproductive potential are detrimental for the sustainability of conservation breeding programs. Acknowledging the continuous resorptive and physiological nature of FR, monitoring and allowing enough time for follicular resorption, and performing partial ovariectomy are recommended for female reptiles in breeding situations.

Hormonal contraception is often used by zoos and aquaria to manage genetic diversity and the size of their populations. However, the contraceptive products used have typically not been designed for use in the target species. The Association of Zoos and Aquariums' Reproductive Management Center (AZA RMC) and the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria's Reproductive Management Group (EAZA RMG) collect data on contraceptive use in global zoos and aquaria to monitor trends and generate contraceptive recommendations. The human 68 mg etonogestrel contraceptive implant (Implanon^®/Nexplanon^®/Implanon NXT^®), a synthetic progestin, has three contraceptive mechanisms: preventing luteinizing hormone release and therefore ovulation, thickening of the cervical mucus, limiting the entry of sperm, and modification of the uterine lining, inhibiting implantation. Here, we review over 30 years of data from the Reproductive Management Center-Reproductive Management Group Contraception Database (CD; N = 3,510 records). Etonogestrel implant use has only been reported in mammals in the CD, including nonhuman primates (91.34% of records), chiropterans (5.78%), carnivores (1.05%), and other mammals (1.82%). The implants are highly effective when used as contraceptives (98.14% effective), and two-thirds of implant failures are attributable to implant loss or to the incorrect application of the product, rather than to true product failures. Etonogestrel implants are generally safe, although long-term use in carnivores is discouraged due to risks of developing reproductive pathology resulting from long-term progestin exposure. Reported noncontraceptive effects included weight gain and a reduction in sexual behavior, which are known noncontraceptive effects in humans. Etonogestrel implants are generally reversible as 63.09% of individuals given the opportunity to breed produced offspring. Etonogestrel implants are safe and effective contraceptives in most female mammals. Further research on noncontraceptive effects and reversibility is required to finetune management recommendations.

This study investigated a previously unreported species of Helicobacter and associated cardiac inflammation in common degus (Octodon degus) at the Bronx Zoo. Lymphohistiocytic and/or lymphoplasmacytic cardiac inflammation was identified in 109 of 242 degu necropsies between 2000 and 2022. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the Helicobacter 16S gene was performed on frozen cardiac tissue from 50 degus with (n = 27) or without (n = 23) carditis. Testing was positive in 16 degus with moderate or severe carditis, negative in 11 degus with minimal or mild carditis, negative in 22 degus without carditis, and positive in one degu without carditis. A positive correlation between PCR positivity and cardiac inflammation was identified from a Fisher's exact test (P < 0.01). Steiner staining was positive for intralesional spiral-shaped bacteria in cardiac tissue from PCR-positive degus (n = 10) and negative in PCR-negative degus (n = 33). Three nondegu rodents with carditis were also PCR positive for the novel Helicobacter. Chromogenic in situ hybridization (CISH) analysis targeting Helicobacter sp. nucleic acid in cardiac tissue was positive in 16 PCR-positive degus with carditis, negative in 33 PCR-negative degus, and positive in the three PCR-positive nondegu rodents. DNA sequencing, sequence alignment and comparison with known Helicobacter spp. through phylogenetic analysis showed that this bacterium, provisionally named Helicobacter sp. 'degu', is likely novel and forms a unique branch point within a larger clade that contains Helicobacter spp. from reptile hosts. Further studies are needed to elucidate a causative role for this bacterium as a pathogen in degus and assess implications for captive animal management and disease risk for degus and other Rodentia species.

The morbidity and mortality analysis of captive orangutans (Pongo spp.) is of major interest to improve husbandry and welfare and to maintain a healthy and sustainable population. This study is a systemic, retrospective review of the morbidity and mortality data in orangutans in the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria Ex-situ Programme (EEP). Between 2000 and 2018, 233 orangutan deaths were reported and 121 postmortem reports from 45 institutions were available for analysis. Causes of death were classified by etiology and organ system. In addition, data were categorized and analyzed further by sex, species, and age. Morbidity data extracted from postmortem reports were classified by organ system. Postmortem reports were provided for 22 neonate (0-31 d old), 14 infant (31 d-2.5 yr old), 11 juvenile (2.5-9 yr old), 49 adult (9-40 yr old), and 25 geriatric (>40 yr old) orangutans. The most reported etiology was infectious-inflammatory (45.5%), except for neonates for whom the major cause of death was birth related (13.2%), mostly due to stillbirth. Overall, the most frequently affected organ system was the respiratory tract (27.7%), followed by generalized-multisystemic diseases (17.6%). A high prevalence of bronchopneumonia and airsacculitis in adults was recognized. Bacteria were the most frequently detected infectious agent. Cardiovascular diseases accounted for 10.1% of deaths, although cardiovascular lesions (myocardial fibrosis or atherosclerosis) were noticed in 80% of geriatric orangutans. Various organ systems were affected in geriatrics, with no particular tendency regarding the cause of death. Renal or urinary diseases were identified in half of individuals included in the comorbidity analysis. Sex (P = 0.51) and species (P = 0.77) had no particular influence over causes of death. This systemic pathology review emphasizes the importance of the standardization of postmortem reports and the systematization of data collection of orangutans across European zoos. Furthermore, the authors recommend close surveillance and research on respiratory diseases in the EEP orangutan population.

The African wild dog (AWD; Lycaon pictus) is an endangered canid from sub-Saharan Africa. Ex situ global conservation efforts include captive breeding and maintenance of healthy individuals in zoos to create insurance populations and maintain genetic diversity. Chronic renal disease (CRD) has been identified as a comorbidity at necropsy in zoo-housed adult and geriatric AWDs. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is a renal biomarker that has been widely used for the early diagnosis of CRD. There are no published reference intervals (RIs) for SDMA and conventional nonspecific renal biomarkers, such as creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) in AWDs. Banked frozen sera collected from 35 healthy AWDs between 2000 and 2020 from two United Kingdom zoos were used to establish RIs using the parametric method. The RIs were: SDMA (2.48-15.7 µg/dl), creatinine (0.67-1.69 mg/dl), and BUN (13.87-39.34 mg/dl). SDMA showed a significant positive correlation with serum creatinine (Pearson's test, r = 0.41; P = 0.02). An independent t test and a one-way ANOVA showed no significant differences between age and sex on the analytes, but mean SDMA levels were higher in younger animals. The RIs determined in this study will help refine the diagnosis and monitoring of CRD in zoo-housed AWDs.

The Galápagos blue-footed booby (Sula nebouxii excisa) is a sulid species endemic to the Galápagos archipelago. Here we present physical examination, breeding status, hematology, and blood chemistry results from 60 Galápagos blue-footed boobies that were captured by hand from their nesting site on North Seymour Island in June 2017 and July 2022. A portable blood analyzer (iSTAT) was used to obtain values in the field for hematocrit, hemoglobin, sodium, potassium, chloride, ionized calcium, total CO₂, glucose, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, and anion gap for each bird. Blood lactate, total solids, packed cell volume, and blood smears were also assessed. A white blood cell differential was performed in 2017. The breeding status of each bird and the number of chicks in the nests were also recorded. Total CO₂, blood urea nitrogen, ionized calcium, potassium, anion gap, hematocrit, and hemoglobin were all higher in 2022 than in 2017. There were also more nests with chicks in 2022 than in 2017. Lactate, ionized calcium, hematocrit, and hemoglobin were all higher in females than in males, and blood urea nitrogen was higher in males than in females. These results provide a reference to the baseline health parameters in a free-living population of Galápagos blue-footed boobies that can be used to monitor the health status of this species.

Serum protein analyses are beneficial tools used to evaluate the health status of animals in a clinical veterinary setting. Capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) is becoming more commonly used in diagnostic laboratories, and commercial reagents for the quantitation of acute phase proteins (APP) are available for validation in nondomesticated mammals. With increased numbers of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) presenting to wildlife facilities with sarcoptic mange, there is a potential for a clinically impactful tool in protein electrophoresis and/or APP quantitation in this species. In this study, we evaluated 29 samples from 17 free-ranging red foxes from Illinois by CZE and APP quantitation. Serum amyloid A (SAA) reagents were validated for use in this species. Of the 17 red foxes enrolled in this study, 7 of them were successfully treated for sarcoptic mange, rehabilitated, and released or transferred to a licensed wildlife rehabilitator for continued care. All red foxes that were successfully treated in this study exhibited decreased SAA levels before release or transfer from the facility, and six of the seven red foxes showed a decrease in γ-globulin levels on release or transfer compared with intake. The results of this study provide preliminary data on serum protein analyses of red foxes, and these assays may have applications as diagnostic tools for assessing the health of the species.

Spheniscid alphaherpesvirus-1 (SpAHV-1) is associated with respiratory disease in juvenile African penguins (Spheniscus demersus). In 2020, this virus was detected in adult birds with clinical signs of respiratory disease in a previously asymptomatic colony of 21 birds following a recommended introduction of three new birds, including two with a history of herpesvirus as juveniles. Mild to moderate respiratory signs were noted in 33% (8/24) of the colony. SpAHV-1 DNA was detected in respiratory secreta by herpesvirus consensus PCR in three birds, although as the definitive source of the presentation, it could not be confirmed. Surveillance for SpAHV-1 was performed in all colony birds seven and 19 mo following resolution of respiratory disease signs. SpAHV-1 was detected via consensus herpesvirus PCR and sequencing in two apparently healthy individuals, including one which had clinical signs of respiratory disease and tested positive for SpAHV-1 during the original outbreak. Due to limited knowledge about this pathogen, a retrospective assessment regarding SpAHV-1 and respiratory disease was performed by analyzing survey data collected from 41 institutions holding African penguins in the Species Survival Plan^© (SSP) North American population from 2011-2021. From the 41 institutions that participated, 782 birds were evaluated and assessed, representing 70% of the total available population (n = 1,116). The majority (80%; 33/41) of participating institutions' veterinarians reported no knowledge of SpAHV-1 prior to this survey. Respiratory disease (e.g., sneezing, coughing, nasal discharge, oropharyngeal plaques, pulmonary auscultation changes) was reported in 21.2% of the surveyed cohort. Most clinical signs were resolved within 3-30 dy, with an average duration of illness of 13 dy. The odds of respiratory disease were significantly higher in males (p < 0.0001) and in non-transferred penguins as compared to those penguins transferred between institutions (p = 0.005). Only 5.6% of penguins (44/782) were tested for herpesviruses by PCR during the study period and of these birds, 18% (8/44) were positive for SpAHV-1. SpAHV-1 represents an important differential for respiratory disease in African penguins, but additional epidemiologic research is needed to determine the full impact of this pathogen.