Mineralium Deposita最新文献

The Baoshan district in the southwestern Sanjiang Tethyan domain is an important part of the worldclass Southeast Asian tin (Sn) belt. However, the timing and controlling factors of Sn mineralization are poorly constrained. Here, we conducted laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) U-Pb dating of cassiterite and monazite, and cassiterite trace element analysis on the Shiganghe and Tiechang Sn deposits (Baoshan district) to unravel the temporal evolution of the regional Sn mineralization. The U–Pb dating of two cassiterite samples from Shiganghe yielded Tera-Wasserburg lower intercept ages of 75.5 ± 3.9 Ma and 75.9 ± 4.8 Ma. U-Pb dating on cassiterite and the cogenetic monazite from Tiechang yielded 32.8 ± 1.3 Ma and 32.2 ± 1.0 Ma, respectively. These ages confirm both Late Cretaceous and Oligocene Sn mineralization events in the Baoshan district. Geological characteristics, and age and geochemical data of cassiterite indicate that Shiganghe is a quartz-vein-type Sn deposit, genetically related to the Late Cretaceous granite that intruded the Ordovician Zhibenshan pluton. Tiechang resembles distal skarn Sn deposits related to the ~ 32 Ma magmatism along the Chongshan shear zone. Tin mineralization in the Tengchong-Baoshan district occurred mainly from the Late Cretaceous to Oligocene, corresponding to the Neo-Tethyan subduction and the subsequent India–Asia continental collision.

The Flatreef occurs at a depth of 700 m under the farm Turfspruit 241 KR in the Northern Limb of the Bushveld Complex. The Flatreef forms part of the Platreef of the Northern Limb, which contains magmatic rocks of the Rustenburg Layered Suite of the Bushveld Complex. The structure of the Flatreef is a flat-lying to gently westerly dipping monoclinal to open fold, 1 km wide and 6 km long. Distinctive features within the Flatreef include the development of cyclical magmatic layering with locally thickened pyroxenitic layers, and associated economically significant poly-metallic mineralisation. Geophysical evidence, exploration drill core, and recent underground exposure show that deformation had a major influence on the Flatreef mineralization. Block faulting and first generation folding affected the orientation and shape of the sedimentary host-rock sequence prior to intrusion of the Rustenburg Layered Suite. These structural and host-rock elements controlled the intrusion of the Lower Zone, and to a lesser degree, the Critical Zone correlatives of the Bushveld Complex in the Northern Limb. During intrusion reverse faults and shear zones and a second generation of folds were active, as well as local extension along layering. Syn-magmatic deformation on these structures led to laterally extensive stratal thickening across them, including the Merensky-Reef correlative that forms part of the Flatreef. This deformation was likely to have been driven by subsidence of the Bushveld complex. Many of these structures were intruded by granitic magmas during the late stages of intrusion, and they were reactivated during extension after intrusion. Thus, structures were active before, during and after the intrusion of Northern Limb, and the structural evolution determined the current geometry and mineral endowment of the Flatreef.

The regolith-hosted rare earth element (REE) deposits in South China are important sources of the world’s REE production. The alteration processes of primary REE-bearing minerals in granitic bedrock remain unclear so that the pathways of REE mobilization from primary minerals to regolith-hosted REE deposits have not yet been well established. Allanite is the principal REE repository in granitic bedrock and may have undergone alteration during deuteric fluid metasomatism and supergene weathering. Here, we document the allanite in the bedrock of the Zuokeng regolith-hosted REE deposit in South China to decode the REE mobilization during interaction of allanite with two different types of fluids. Most allanite grains have four distinct domains in the backscattered electron (BSE) images. Domain 1 is of magmatic origin and enriched in light REE (LREE), whereas Domains 2, 3 and 4 are of hydrothermal origin with different degrees of enrichment in middle to heavy REE (M-HREE). In particular, Domain 4 appears as overgrowth rims with the highest M-HREE concentrations among hydrothermal domains and likely crystallized from Cl-rich deuteric fluids exsolved from granitic magmas, evidenced by consistent U–Pb ages (ca. 159 Ma) and ε_Nd(t) values (-9.4 to -7.3) of Domains 4 and 1. The preferential removal of LREE and uptake of M-HREE from Domains 2 and 3 to Domain 4 is thus attributed to metasomatism by Cl-rich deuteric fluids. On the other hand, some allanite grains in weathered bedrock also interacted with F- and carbonate-rich groundwater and were gradually replaced by synchysite-(Ce) and calcite. Consequently, LREE were concentrated in synchysite-(Ce), whereas M-HREE may have been lost to groundwater. This study unravels that the enrichment of LREE and M-HREE in altered bedrock was initially facilitated by F-, carbonate-rich fluids and Cl-rich deuteric fluids, respectively, which are likely crucial for developing regolith-hosted LREE and M-HREE deposits in South China.

This paper provides a top-down nanoscale analysis of Cu-Ni-Fe sulfide inclusions in laurite from the Taitao ophiolite (Chile) and the Kevitsa mafic-ultramafic igneous intrusion (Finland). High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) reveal that Cu-Ni-Fe sulfide inclusions are euhedral to (sub)-anhedral (i.e., droplet-like) and form single, biphasic or polyphasic grains, made up of different polymorphs, polytypes and polysomes even within a single sulfide crystal. Tetragonal (I4(stackrel{-}{2})d) and cubic (F(stackrel{-}{4})3m) chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂) host frequent fringes of bornite (Cu₅FeS₄; cubic F(stackrel{-}{4})3m and/or orthorhombic Pbca) ± talnakhite (Cu₉(Fe, Ni)₈S₁₆; cubic I(stackrel{-}{4})3m) ± pyrrhotite (Fe_1 − xS; monoclinic C2/c polytype 4C and orthorhombic Cmca polytype 11C) ± pentlandite ((Ni, Fe)₉S₈; cubic Fm3m). Pentlandite hosts fringes of pyrrhotite, bornite and/or talnakhite. Laurite and Cu-Fe-Ni sulfide inclusions display coherent, semi-coherent and incoherent crystallographic orientation relationships (COR), defined by perfect edge-to-edge matching, as well as slight (2–4º) to significant (45º) lattice misfit. These COR suggest diverse mechanisms of crystal growth of Cu-Fe-Ni sulfide melt mechanically trapped by growing laurite. Meanwhile, the mutual COR within the sulfide inclusions discloses: (1) Fe-Ni-S melt solidified into MSS re-equilibrated after cooling into pyrrhotite ± pentlandite, (2) Cu-Ni-Fe-S melts crystallized into the quaternary solid solution spanning the compositional range between heazlewoodite [(Ni, Fe)_3±xS₂] (Hz_ss) and ISS [(Cu_1±x, Fe_1±y)S₂]. Additionally, nanocrystallites (50–100 nm) of Pt-S and iridarsenite (IrAsS) accompanying the sulfide inclusions spotlight the segregation of PGE-rich sulfide and arsenide melt earlier and/or contemporarily to laurite crystallization from the silicate magmas. Cobaltite (CoAsS)-gersdorffite (NiAsS) epitaxially overgrown on laurite further supports the segregation of arsenide melts at early stages of chromitite formation.

Trace element concentrations in magnetite are dictated by the petrogenetic environment and by the physico-chemical conditions during magmatic, hydrothermal, or sedimentary processes. This makes magnetite chemistry a useful tool in the exploration of ore-forming processes. We describe magnetite compositions from Ni-Cu-(PGE)-sulfide mineralized rocks from seven mafic–ultramafic intrusions peripheral to the Mesoproterozoic AMCG (anorthosite-mangerite-charnockite-granite) suite of the Kunene Complex of Angola and Namibia to investigate metallogenic processes through the geochemical characterization of Fe-oxides, which were analyzed in-situ via Electron Probe Microanalysis (EPMA), and Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). We identified magmatic magnetite, segregated from both a silicate liquid and an immiscible sulfide liquid. Elements like Cr, Co and V suggest that the sulfide-related magnetite segregated from a relatively primitive Fe-rich monosulfide solid solution (MSS). Secondary Cr-rich magnetite appears in intrusions with abundant chromite or Cr-spinel. Two types of hydrothermal magnetite were identified, related to the pervasive replacement of sulfides and a late-stage, low-T fluid circulation event. Magnetite replacing sulfides is associated with serpentinized ultramafic rocks and is preferentially observed in the intrusions with the highest base and precious metal tenors. The high concentration of Ni, Co, Cu, Pd, As and Sb in these grains is corroborated by the identification of micron-size PGE mineral inclusions. We infer that serpentinization during hydrothermal fluid circulation was accompanied by desulphurization of sulfides with metal remobilization and reconcentration to generate magnetite carrying Pd microinclusions. We suggest that the highly serpentinized ultramafic rocks in the Kunene Complex region may become a possible target for economic Ni-Cu-(PGE) mineralization.

This study investigated the Boam mine area, a prominent Li-pegmatite deposits located in South Korea, using Li-bearing micas to determine the magmatic–aqueous transition involved in rare-element pegmatite formation. Muscovite–lepidolite series micas from the layered pegmatite exhibited six textures, classified into three stages (early, intermediate, and late) based on compositions of major and trace elements. The substitution mechanisms of muscovite–lepidolite series micas follow lithium fixation (Si ↔ Li + Al) and phengitic substitution (Al^iv + 2Al^vi ↔ Li + (Fe²⁺, Mg²⁺, Mn²⁺) + Si) vectors. Early-stage micas displayed a large grain size due to rapid crystal growth due from low undercooling. Diffusional zonation of these micas with the higher Nb–Ta and lower Li concentrations compared with later-stage lepidolite indicate a lower degree of fractionation. These features suggest a silicic melt origin for early-stage micas. Intermediate-stage micas are distinctly separated from the early-stage type and feature erratic boundaries with higher Li composition. B enrichment reduced the melt viscosity and increased the H₂O solubility, resulting in an increase in growth rate and retardation of mineralization. The inhibition of HFSE partitioning by B lead to a lower Nb–Ta concentration than the silicic melt, suggesting the existence of an aqueous melt. Fine-grained late-stage mica coexists with microcrystalline quartz, and is characterized by Cs enrichment and Nb–Ta depletion that exclusively occur in flux-rich aqueous fluids. Non-Rayleigh behavior of K-Rb-Cs indicates a deviation from fractional crystallization unlike melt phases, suggesting an aqueous fluid origin for late-stage micas. Consequently, the formation of Li-pegmatite in the deposit was predominantly controlled by the immiscibility of silicic melt–aqueous melt–aqueous fluid and fractional crystallization within each medium.

The ca. 3.0 Ga Ni sulfide mineralisation at Maniitsoq, SW Greenland, is hosted by a cluster of relatively small, irregularly shaped mafic-ultramafic intrusions, typically 10s of m to a few km across, that are lodged within broadly coeval gneiss. Many of the intrusions are fault bounded and fragmented so that their original sizes remain unknown. The sulfides form disseminations and sulfide matrix breccia veins displaying sharp contacts to the host intrusives. The mineralisation has relatively high Ni/Cu, with 4–10% Ni and 1–2% Cu. Correlations between Ni and Cu with sulfide content are strong, consistent with a magmatic origin of the mineralisation. PGE contents are mostly below 0.5 ppm, and Cu/Pd is typically above primitive mantle levels, interpreted to reflect equilibration of the parent magma with segregating sulfide melt prior to final magma emplacement. Sulfide segregation was likely triggered by assimilation of crustal sulfur, as suggested by whole rock S/Se ratios of 7000–9000. The sulfide melt underwent extensive fractionation after final emplacement, caused by downward percolation of Cu-rich sulfide melt through incompletely solidified cumulates. We suggest that the exposed Maniitsoq intrusions represent the Ni-rich upper portions of magma conduits implying that there is potential for Cu-rich sulfides in unexposed deeper portions of the belt.

To evaluate the fertility of porphyry mineralization in the Delamerian Orogen (South Australia), zircon and apatite from four prospects, including Anabama Hill, Netley Hill, Bendigo, and Colebatch, have been analyzed by LA-ICP-MS and electron microprobe. The zircon is characterized by heavy REEs enrichment relative to light REEs, high (Ce/Nd)_N (1.3–45), and weak to moderate negative Eu/Eu* (0.2–0.78). The apatite has right-sloped REE patterns with variably negative to positive Eu anomalies. Low Mg (< 670 ppm) and Sr/Y ratios (< 5) in apatite likely illustrate fractional crystallization trends for the granitic melts in shallow crust. The Yb/Gb and Eu/Eu* in zircon reveal that intrusions at Anabama Hill, Netley Hill, and Bendigo underwent fractional crystallization controlled by amphibole (< 50–60%), garnet (< 15%), apatite (< 0.6%), and/or titanite (< 0.3%). These stocks have average fO₂ values reported relative to fayalite-magnetite-quartz buffer (ΔFMQ), from 0.7 ± 0.9 to 2.1 ± 0.4, ascribed to prolonged magmatic evolution or sulfur degassing during post-subduction processes. Our data imply that both Anabama and Bendigo complexes experienced prevalent (garnet-) amphibole crystallization from hydrous melts that have moderately high oxidation (ΔFMQ + 1 to + 3) and elevated sulfur-chlorine components (Anabama, 37 ± 9 to 134 ± 83 ppm S and 0.30 ± 0.24 to 0.64 ± 0.89 wt% Cl; Bendigo, 281 ± 178 to 909 ± 474 ppm S and 0.45 ± 0.47 to 3.01 ± 1.54 wt% Cl). These are crucial ingredients to form porphyry Cu–Mo ± Au ores with economic significance, which provides encouragement for mineral exploration in this orogen.

The Felbertal tungsten deposit is the only economic scheelite mine in Europe, yet its genesis is not fully understood. It has been argued recently that the formation of the deposit is most likely related to granitic intrusions of Variscan age, contrasting a previously suggested syn-depositional stratabound origin of Early Cambrian age. Solving this controversy remains challenging due to the polymetamorphic evolution of the deposit, which experienced both Variscan and Alpine metamorphism. In this contribution we present a comprehensive new data set of scheelite major, minor, and trace element concentrations from multiple scheelite generations of the Felbertal deposit along with microstructural observations. Our results show that Mo, Mo/Mn, REE, Y/Ho, Nb, and Nb/Ta in scheelite are variable within the different scheelite generations and are predominantly controlled by the host-rock lithologies on the local scale, whereas in general the data show a strong response to the shift of P, T, and pH upon changing magmatic-hydrothermal to metamorphic conditions. For the first time, we identify remnants of primary scheelite in the Western Ore Zone. The presented data support a magmatic-hydrothermal origin of the first scheelite mineralization during the Variscan orogeny with primary scheelite being characterized by wing-shaped REE patterns with a negative Eu-anomaly, high trace element concentrations, non-chondritic Y/Ho, and high Nb/Ta. Primary scheelite underwent metamorphic/hydrothermal alteration (recrystallization and dissolution-reprecipitation processes) during the Variscan and Alpine orogeny. This case study highlights that indicative mineralization-controlling geochemical ratios like Sr/Mn cannot be applied for polymetamorphic tungsten deposits like Felbertal.

High-grade (> 10 g/t) gold mineralization in orogenic gold deposits is of significant economic importance. Understanding the formation of such enriched ore zones is critical for gold exploration success. The world-class Jundee-Bogada gold camp in the Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia comprises both high-grade (avg. > 10 g/t, Jundee deposit) and low-grade (avg. < 3 g/t, Bogada prospect) lodes, despite shared host stratigraphy. The paragenetic framework established for the Jundee gold deposit suggests that the overall gold endowment developed over three deformation events. An early episode of low-grade gold mineralization is associated with colloform-crustiform veins that formed during extensional deformation (D_JB2A). A switch to transtensional deformation (D_JB2B) resulted in brecciation of the colloform-crustiform veins and coeval deposition of native gold. Late reverse faults record evidence for a third mineralization stage resulting from a NE-SW-directed shortening (D_JB3). Mineralization during this late stage was dominantly low-grade, with local occurrences of ultra-high-grade ore zones (> 100 g/t). Each event records transient changes in fluid chemistry during continued hydrothermal activity that spanned local deformation histories. We argue that at the Jundee gold deposit, protracted gold enrichment during three polyphased mineralization episodes resulted in the formation of high-grade gold ores. Whereas the complete metallogenic history is recorded at the Jundee deposit, gold within the Bogada prospect was introduced solely during the late contractional stage (D_JB3), resulting in a bulk low-grade endowment. We hypothesize that gold enrichment in high-grade orogenic gold deposits is a direct consequence of the spatial superimposition of protracted ore-forming events.