Pub Date : 2019-12-29DOI: 10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0209
J. Jacobs
{"title":"Benzene in Groundwater: Chemical Behavior and Treatment","authors":"J. Jacobs","doi":"10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0209","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0209","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":190339,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia of Water","volume":"8 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121104185","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-29DOI: 10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0072
W. Johnson, W. Wurtsbaugh, G. Belovsky, B. Baxter, F. Black, C. Angeroth, P. Jewell, Shu Yang
{"title":"Geochemistry of Great Salt Lake","authors":"W. Johnson, W. Wurtsbaugh, G. Belovsky, B. Baxter, F. Black, C. Angeroth, P. Jewell, Shu Yang","doi":"10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0072","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0072","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":190339,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia of Water","volume":"9 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129538099","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-29DOI: 10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0198
D. Parsons, Mathias Boström, Werner Kunz, B. Ninham
{"title":"Hofmeister Effects","authors":"D. Parsons, Mathias Boström, Werner Kunz, B. Ninham","doi":"10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0198","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0198","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":190339,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia of Water","volume":"163 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133677678","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Acid mine drainage (AMD) occurs when metal sulfides are exposed to oxidizing conditions. Leaching of reaction products into surface waters pollute over 20,000 km of streams in the United States alone. Mining companies must predict the potential of creating AMD by using overburden analyses. Where a potential exists, special handling of overburden materials and quick coverage of acid-producing materials in the backfill should be practiced. The addition of acid-neutralizing materials can reduce or eliminate AMD problems. Placing acid-producing materials under dry barriers can isolate these materials from air and water. Other AMD control technologies being researched include injection of alkaline materials (ashes and limestone) into abandoned underground mines and into buried acid material in mine backfills, remining of abandoned areas, and installation of alkaline recharge trenches. Chemicals used for treating AMD are Ca(OH)2, CaO, NaOH, Na2CO3, and NH3, with each having advantages under certain conditions. Under low-flow situations, all chemicals except Ca(OH)2 are cost effective, whereas at high flow, Ca(OH)2 and CaO are clearly the most cost effective. Floc, the metal hydroxide material collected after treatment, is disposed of in abandoned deep mines, refuse piles, or left in collection ponds. Wetlands remove metals from AMD through formation of oxyhydroxides and sulfides, exchange and organic complexation reactions, and direct plant uptake. Aerobic wetlands are used when water contains enough alkalinity to promote metal precipitation, and anaerobic wetlands are used when alkalinity must be generated by microbial sulfate reduction and limestone dissolution. Anoxic limestone drains are buried trenches of limestone that intercept AMD underground to generate alkalinity. Under anoxia, limestone should not be coated with Fe+3 hydroxides in the drain, which decreases the likelihood of clogging. Vertical flow wetlands pretreat oxygenated AMD with organic matter to remove oxygen and Fe+3, and then the water is introduced into limestone underneath the organic matter. Open limestone channels use limestone in aerobic environments to treat AMD. Coating of limestone occurs, and the reduced limestone dissolution is designed into the treatment system. Alkaline leach beds, containing either limestone or slag, add alkalinity to acid water. At present, most passive systems offer short-term treatment and are more practical for installation on abandoned sites or watershed restoration projects where effluent limits do not apply and where some removal of acid and metals will benefit a stream. Keywords: acid-base accounting; acid-producing material; acid-neutralizing material; alkalinity-producing systems; anoxic limestone drains; chemical treatment; open limestone channels; passive treatment; wetlands
{"title":"Acid Mine Drainage: Sources and Treatment in the United States","authors":"J. Skousen, P. Ziemkiewicz, L. McDonald","doi":"10.1002/047147844X.GW3","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/047147844X.GW3","url":null,"abstract":"Acid mine drainage (AMD) occurs when metal sulfides are exposed to oxidizing conditions. Leaching of reaction products into surface waters pollute over 20,000 km of streams in the United States alone. Mining companies must predict the potential of creating AMD by using overburden analyses. Where a potential exists, special handling of overburden materials and quick coverage of acid-producing materials in the backfill should be practiced. The addition of acid-neutralizing materials can reduce or eliminate AMD problems. Placing acid-producing materials under dry barriers can isolate these materials from air and water. Other AMD control technologies being researched include injection of alkaline materials (ashes and limestone) into abandoned underground mines and into buried acid material in mine backfills, remining of abandoned areas, and installation of alkaline recharge trenches. Chemicals used for treating AMD are Ca(OH)2, CaO, NaOH, Na2CO3, and NH3, with each having advantages under certain conditions. Under low-flow situations, all chemicals except Ca(OH)2 are cost effective, whereas at high flow, Ca(OH)2 and CaO are clearly the most cost effective. Floc, the metal hydroxide material collected after treatment, is disposed of in abandoned deep mines, refuse piles, or left in collection ponds. Wetlands remove metals from AMD through formation of oxyhydroxides and sulfides, exchange and organic complexation reactions, and direct plant uptake. Aerobic wetlands are used when water contains enough alkalinity to promote metal precipitation, and anaerobic wetlands are used when alkalinity must be generated by microbial sulfate reduction and limestone dissolution. Anoxic limestone drains are buried trenches of limestone that intercept AMD underground to generate alkalinity. Under anoxia, limestone should not be coated with Fe+3 hydroxides in the drain, which decreases the likelihood of clogging. Vertical flow wetlands pretreat oxygenated AMD with organic matter to remove oxygen and Fe+3, and then the water is introduced into limestone underneath the organic matter. Open limestone channels use limestone in aerobic environments to treat AMD. Coating of limestone occurs, and the reduced limestone dissolution is designed into the treatment system. Alkaline leach beds, containing either limestone or slag, add alkalinity to acid water. At present, most passive systems offer short-term treatment and are more practical for installation on abandoned sites or watershed restoration projects where effluent limits do not apply and where some removal of acid and metals will benefit a stream. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000acid-base accounting; \u0000acid-producing material; \u0000acid-neutralizing material; \u0000alkalinity-producing systems; \u0000anoxic limestone drains; \u0000chemical treatment; \u0000open limestone channels; \u0000passive treatment; \u0000wetlands","PeriodicalId":190339,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia of Water","volume":"71 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116963993","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-29DOI: 10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0098
Julie Babin, F. Lasserre, P. Pic
Climate change in the Arctic triggered a series of discourses about the opening up of a previously unreachable region. The long-fantasized northern routes would be on the verge of becoming actual seaways as a consequence of the melting of sea ice. In reality, navigation remains difficult in the Arctic, transits are still very limited, as sea ice is still a major constraint. The passages have always intrigued though, provoking fascination as early as when the Vikings reached the western coast of Greenland, to the vivid reaction to the Russians planting a flag on the North Pole in 2007. With climate change, the Arctic is being scrutinized more than ever; hence, the numerous discourses about navigation in particular. In this article, we analyze the development of both the Northwest Passage (NWP) and the Northern Sea Route (NSR). We then investigate the recent trends in Arctic shipping in order to put those discourses into perspective and portray the current tendency.
{"title":"Arctic Shipping and Polar Seaways","authors":"Julie Babin, F. Lasserre, P. Pic","doi":"10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0098","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0098","url":null,"abstract":"Climate change in the Arctic triggered a series of discourses about the opening up of a previously unreachable region. The long-fantasized northern routes would be on the verge of becoming actual seaways as a consequence of the melting of sea ice. In reality, navigation remains difficult in the Arctic, transits are still very limited, as sea ice is still a major constraint. The passages have always intrigued though, provoking fascination as early as when the Vikings reached the western coast of Greenland, to the vivid reaction to the Russians planting a flag on the North Pole in 2007. With climate change, the Arctic is being scrutinized more than ever; hence, the numerous discourses about navigation in particular. In this article, we analyze the development of both the Northwest Passage (NWP) and the Northern Sea Route (NSR). We then investigate the recent trends in Arctic shipping in order to put those discourses into perspective and portray the current tendency.","PeriodicalId":190339,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia of Water","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129944669","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-29DOI: 10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0042
Zhengyu Xia, Zicheng Yu
The term isotope, derived from Greek, means occupying the same position in the periodic table. Isotopes are variant forms of a particular chemical element that have the same number of protons (atomic number) but differ in the number of neutrons in the atomic mass. Isotopes come in two basic types: radioactive (unstable) and stable. Radioactive isotopes are nuclides that are unstable and spontaneously decay into other new isotopes, whereas stable isotopes are nuclides that do not appear to decay radioactively. Hydrogen and oxygen have a number of isotopes, including radioactive and stable isotopes. The two stable isotopes of hydrogen, 1H and 2H (also called deuterium and denoted as D), have natural abundances of 99.9885% and 0.0115% in hydrosphere, respectively. The third isotope of hydrogen, 3H (tritium), is unstable with a half-life of 12.23 years. The stable isotopes of oxygen, including 16O, 17O, and 18O, have natural abundances of 99.762%, 0.0379%, and 0.200% in hydrosphere, respectively. Other isotopes of oxygen are radioactive and very short-lived. In isotope geochemistry, it is a convention to use the atomic abundance ratio of the rare isotope to the major isotope (e.g. 18O/16O, 2H/1H) relative to a standard of known isotopic composition to describe the isotopic composition of samples as: δ (in ‰) = ( Rx Rs − 1 ) × 1000
{"title":"Applications of Stable Isotopes to Studies of Paleohydrology and Paleoclimatology","authors":"Zhengyu Xia, Zicheng Yu","doi":"10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0042","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0042","url":null,"abstract":"The term isotope, derived from Greek, means occupying the same position in the periodic table. Isotopes are variant forms of a particular chemical element that have the same number of protons (atomic number) but differ in the number of neutrons in the atomic mass. Isotopes come in two basic types: radioactive (unstable) and stable. Radioactive isotopes are nuclides that are unstable and spontaneously decay into other new isotopes, whereas stable isotopes are nuclides that do not appear to decay radioactively. Hydrogen and oxygen have a number of isotopes, including radioactive and stable isotopes. The two stable isotopes of hydrogen, 1H and 2H (also called deuterium and denoted as D), have natural abundances of 99.9885% and 0.0115% in hydrosphere, respectively. The third isotope of hydrogen, 3H (tritium), is unstable with a half-life of 12.23 years. The stable isotopes of oxygen, including 16O, 17O, and 18O, have natural abundances of 99.762%, 0.0379%, and 0.200% in hydrosphere, respectively. Other isotopes of oxygen are radioactive and very short-lived. In isotope geochemistry, it is a convention to use the atomic abundance ratio of the rare isotope to the major isotope (e.g. 18O/16O, 2H/1H) relative to a standard of known isotopic composition to describe the isotopic composition of samples as: δ (in ‰) = ( Rx Rs − 1 ) × 1000","PeriodicalId":190339,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia of Water","volume":"20 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129144022","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-29DOI: 10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0218
David B. Vance, J. Jacobs
{"title":"Arsenic in Groundwater: Chemical Behavior and Treatment","authors":"David B. Vance, J. Jacobs","doi":"10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0218","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0218","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":190339,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia of Water","volume":"71 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126346309","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-29DOI: 10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0183
M. Neet, Jamelle H. Ellis, Zachary H. Hart, Geoffrey I. Scott, D. Friedman, R. H. Kelsey, D. Porter
{"title":"Environmental and Public Health Issues: Community Engagement in Environmental Justice Populations","authors":"M. Neet, Jamelle H. Ellis, Zachary H. Hart, Geoffrey I. Scott, D. Friedman, R. H. Kelsey, D. Porter","doi":"10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0183","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0183","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":190339,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia of Water","volume":"40 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114647636","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-29DOI: 10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0001
B. Gu, Xia Lu, A. Johs, E. Pierce
{"title":"Mercury in Water","authors":"B. Gu, Xia Lu, A. Johs, E. Pierce","doi":"10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0001","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":190339,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia of Water","volume":"15 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116752726","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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