C. Tupaz, Yasushi Watanabe, K. Sanematsu, T. Echigo
Iron (Fe) oxyhydroxides (goethite and hematite) and manganese (Mn)‐oxyhydroxides (lithiophorite, asbolane, lithiophorite‐asbolane intermediate) are typically fine‐grained and poorly crystalline in nature, and as such are difficult to identify by conventional X‐ray powder diffraction. This study employs Raman spectroscopy and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) to characterize Fe‐ and Mn‐oxyhydroxides found in the Berong Ni–Co laterite deposit at Palawan Island, Philippines. Accurate identification of these minerals is important because these phases contain high Ni and Co contents. Goethite and hematite occur in a wide range of textures, which are related to their compositional variations with respect to Ni, Al, Mn, Cr, and Si. The change in the intensity of the Raman peaks can be linked to the variable concentrations of Ni, Al, Mn, Cr, and Si in goethite. These chemical variations affect the textural transformation of goethite from amorphous to cryptocrystalline. Lithiophorite, asbolane and their intermediates were properly distinguished using Raman spectroscopy. EPMA data shows that these Mn minerals contain appreciable concentrations of Ni, Co, Al, and Fe. The band shift from lithiophorite to asbolane end terms in the 486–593 cm−1 domain indicates the substitution of Al in lithiophorite by Ni, Co, and Fe.
{"title":"Spectral and chemical studies of iron and manganese oxyhydroxides in laterite developed on ultramafic rocks","authors":"C. Tupaz, Yasushi Watanabe, K. Sanematsu, T. Echigo","doi":"10.1111/rge.12272","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/rge.12272","url":null,"abstract":"Iron (Fe) oxyhydroxides (goethite and hematite) and manganese (Mn)‐oxyhydroxides (lithiophorite, asbolane, lithiophorite‐asbolane intermediate) are typically fine‐grained and poorly crystalline in nature, and as such are difficult to identify by conventional X‐ray powder diffraction. This study employs Raman spectroscopy and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) to characterize Fe‐ and Mn‐oxyhydroxides found in the Berong Ni–Co laterite deposit at Palawan Island, Philippines. Accurate identification of these minerals is important because these phases contain high Ni and Co contents. Goethite and hematite occur in a wide range of textures, which are related to their compositional variations with respect to Ni, Al, Mn, Cr, and Si. The change in the intensity of the Raman peaks can be linked to the variable concentrations of Ni, Al, Mn, Cr, and Si in goethite. These chemical variations affect the textural transformation of goethite from amorphous to cryptocrystalline. Lithiophorite, asbolane and their intermediates were properly distinguished using Raman spectroscopy. EPMA data shows that these Mn minerals contain appreciable concentrations of Ni, Co, Al, and Fe. The band shift from lithiophorite to asbolane end terms in the 486–593 cm−1 domain indicates the substitution of Al in lithiophorite by Ni, Co, and Fe.","PeriodicalId":21089,"journal":{"name":"Resource Geology","volume":"184 1","pages":"377 - 391"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2021-07-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"85682376","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The new discovery of the economical metal deposit is getting more difficult year by year because the unexplored areas tend to be more remote areas than ever, and the metal prospective zones are deepening in the recent decades. Therefore, the advent of the state‐of‐the‐art or advanced geophysics technology to peer the deeper parts of the ground with higher accuracy and spatial resolution has been aspired in metal exploration industry. The author reports and introduces the drone‐based magnetic survey, the three‐dimensional time‐domain IP inversion algorithm using Cole–Cole parameter, the time domain electromagnetic method using superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID), and passive seismic survey as the state‐of‐the‐art or advanced geophysics technology for metal exploration.
{"title":"State‐of‐the‐art geophysics for metal exploration","authors":"E. Arai","doi":"10.1111/rge.12271","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/rge.12271","url":null,"abstract":"The new discovery of the economical metal deposit is getting more difficult year by year because the unexplored areas tend to be more remote areas than ever, and the metal prospective zones are deepening in the recent decades. Therefore, the advent of the state‐of‐the‐art or advanced geophysics technology to peer the deeper parts of the ground with higher accuracy and spatial resolution has been aspired in metal exploration industry. The author reports and introduces the drone‐based magnetic survey, the three‐dimensional time‐domain IP inversion algorithm using Cole–Cole parameter, the time domain electromagnetic method using superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID), and passive seismic survey as the state‐of‐the‐art or advanced geophysics technology for metal exploration.","PeriodicalId":21089,"journal":{"name":"Resource Geology","volume":"51 1","pages":"470 - 491"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2021-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83336386","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Amogelang Kooganne, A. Imai, A. Agangi, R. Takahashi
The Mowana hydrothermal Cu deposit is located within the Matsitama–Motloutse Complex in the southwestern part of the Zimbabwe Craton in the northeastern part of Botswana. This study aims to document the characteristics of the mineralization based on geology, quartz textures, ore mineralogy, chlorite geothermometry, and sulfur isotope analyses. The deposit is hosted by the NNE‐striking and nearly vertically dipping (70–80°) Bushman Lineament, within the graphitic schist lenses in the carbonaceous and argillaceous metasedimentary rocks of the Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic Matsitama Sedimentary Group. The hydrothermal alteration of the host rocks is characterized by silicification, chloritization, epidotization, sericitization, hematite, and calcite alteration. Based on the alteration mineral assemblage, the main mineralization stage is attributed to near neutral pH fluids at temperatures between ~200 and ~340°C. The base metal mineralization of the Mowana deposit was evolved in at least two vein types. The first mineralization type, represented by the quartz+calcite±K‐feldspar veins and breccias is characterized by the precipitation of principal chalcopyrite with pyrite, minor bornite, and trace amounts of galena. The Type 2 veins represented by the quartz+calcite±fluorite veins, host appreciable amounts of galena. The supergene mineralization widely distributed in the shallow levels of the deposit is manifested by the significant presence of chalcocite, bornite, covellite, anglesite, malachite, and hematite. The temperature obtained from the chlorite geothermometry in the Type 1 veins indicate that the mineralization associated with chlorite alteration formed at a temperature ranging from 340 to 400°C. The ore mineral assemblage: pyrite, bornite, and chalcopyrite, paired with the chlorite geothermometry data indicate that the Type 1 veins formed at an intemediate to high sulfidation state. Sulfur isotopic ratios determined on the sulfides indicate the magmatic S and/or leaching of the host metasedimentary rocks and closed system reduction of seawater sulfate as the sources of S.
{"title":"Geology, mineralogy, and sulfur isotopes of the Mowana copper deposit, Matsitama Schist Belt, NE Botswana","authors":"Amogelang Kooganne, A. Imai, A. Agangi, R. Takahashi","doi":"10.1111/rge.12263","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/rge.12263","url":null,"abstract":"The Mowana hydrothermal Cu deposit is located within the Matsitama–Motloutse Complex in the southwestern part of the Zimbabwe Craton in the northeastern part of Botswana. This study aims to document the characteristics of the mineralization based on geology, quartz textures, ore mineralogy, chlorite geothermometry, and sulfur isotope analyses. The deposit is hosted by the NNE‐striking and nearly vertically dipping (70–80°) Bushman Lineament, within the graphitic schist lenses in the carbonaceous and argillaceous metasedimentary rocks of the Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic Matsitama Sedimentary Group. The hydrothermal alteration of the host rocks is characterized by silicification, chloritization, epidotization, sericitization, hematite, and calcite alteration. Based on the alteration mineral assemblage, the main mineralization stage is attributed to near neutral pH fluids at temperatures between ~200 and ~340°C. The base metal mineralization of the Mowana deposit was evolved in at least two vein types. The first mineralization type, represented by the quartz+calcite±K‐feldspar veins and breccias is characterized by the precipitation of principal chalcopyrite with pyrite, minor bornite, and trace amounts of galena. The Type 2 veins represented by the quartz+calcite±fluorite veins, host appreciable amounts of galena. The supergene mineralization widely distributed in the shallow levels of the deposit is manifested by the significant presence of chalcocite, bornite, covellite, anglesite, malachite, and hematite. The temperature obtained from the chlorite geothermometry in the Type 1 veins indicate that the mineralization associated with chlorite alteration formed at a temperature ranging from 340 to 400°C. The ore mineral assemblage: pyrite, bornite, and chalcopyrite, paired with the chlorite geothermometry data indicate that the Type 1 veins formed at an intemediate to high sulfidation state. Sulfur isotopic ratios determined on the sulfides indicate the magmatic S and/or leaching of the host metasedimentary rocks and closed system reduction of seawater sulfate as the sources of S.","PeriodicalId":21089,"journal":{"name":"Resource Geology","volume":"127 1","pages":"320 - 338"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2021-06-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"77340627","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The Qingchengzi Pb‐Zn‐Au (‐Ag) orefield (eastern Liaoning province, NE China) is located in the northeastern margin of the North China Craton. The unconventional Fe isotopes of pyrites were analyzed to unravel the ore‐material source and migration pathway of the ore fluids. Pyrite samples of ores and wallrocks from various deposits in the orefield were collected and the solutions were analyzed by MC‐ICP‐MS. The results show that most pyrite samples contain heavier Fe isotopes than the international pyrite standard IRMM‐014. Within a particular deposit, Fe isotopes become lighter with depth. For example, the pyrite δ56Fe values drop from 0.216 ~ 0.408‰ (150‐m level) to −0.284 to −0.132‰ (210‐m level) at the Zhenzigou deposit. Gold deposits in the orefield also have similar features: At Baiyun (Huangdianzi), the pyrite δ56Fe values (0.394 ~ 0.627‰) of the silicic‐/potassic‐altered rock‐type ore (130‐m level) are significantly higher than that (0.359‰) of the quartz vein‐type ore (440‐m level). The lamprophyre δ56Fe values from different deposits are largely similar (0.040 ~ 0.024‰), whereas those in the wallrocks vary considerably (0.144 ~ 1.238‰). Compiling the pyrite δ56Fe values from many important sedimentary/metamorphic rock units in the region and magmatic‐hydrothermal deposits around the world, we concluded that the Qingchengzi Pb‐Zn‐Au(‐Ag) deposits belong to intrusion‐related magmatic‐hydrothermal type. The spatial fluid isotope variation pattern, and the fact that early‐formed sulfides have lighter isotopes than later ones, suggest that the Qingchengzi ore fluids may have originated from Zhenzigou‐Diannan (hydrothermal center) and outflown to Xiaotongjiapuzi, Gujiapuzi‐Baiyun and Erdao‐Xiquegou areas. The spatial fluid isotope variation pattern also suggests another possible hydrothermal center at Baiyun‐Gujiapuzi. The ability to identify hydrothermal center(s) and delineate fluid migration pathways suggests that pyrite Fe isotopes can serve as a tool for precious and base metals prospecting.
{"title":"Iron isotopes as an ore‐fluid tracer: Case study of Qingchengzi Pb‐Zn‐Au(‐Ag) orefield in Liaoning, NE China","authors":"Dedong Li, Yuwang Wang, Jingbin Wang, Chunkit Lai, J. Qiu, Wei Wang, Shenghui Li, Zhichao Zhang","doi":"10.1111/rge.12261","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/rge.12261","url":null,"abstract":"The Qingchengzi Pb‐Zn‐Au (‐Ag) orefield (eastern Liaoning province, NE China) is located in the northeastern margin of the North China Craton. The unconventional Fe isotopes of pyrites were analyzed to unravel the ore‐material source and migration pathway of the ore fluids. Pyrite samples of ores and wallrocks from various deposits in the orefield were collected and the solutions were analyzed by MC‐ICP‐MS. The results show that most pyrite samples contain heavier Fe isotopes than the international pyrite standard IRMM‐014. Within a particular deposit, Fe isotopes become lighter with depth. For example, the pyrite δ56Fe values drop from 0.216 ~ 0.408‰ (150‐m level) to −0.284 to −0.132‰ (210‐m level) at the Zhenzigou deposit. Gold deposits in the orefield also have similar features: At Baiyun (Huangdianzi), the pyrite δ56Fe values (0.394 ~ 0.627‰) of the silicic‐/potassic‐altered rock‐type ore (130‐m level) are significantly higher than that (0.359‰) of the quartz vein‐type ore (440‐m level). The lamprophyre δ56Fe values from different deposits are largely similar (0.040 ~ 0.024‰), whereas those in the wallrocks vary considerably (0.144 ~ 1.238‰). Compiling the pyrite δ56Fe values from many important sedimentary/metamorphic rock units in the region and magmatic‐hydrothermal deposits around the world, we concluded that the Qingchengzi Pb‐Zn‐Au(‐Ag) deposits belong to intrusion‐related magmatic‐hydrothermal type. The spatial fluid isotope variation pattern, and the fact that early‐formed sulfides have lighter isotopes than later ones, suggest that the Qingchengzi ore fluids may have originated from Zhenzigou‐Diannan (hydrothermal center) and outflown to Xiaotongjiapuzi, Gujiapuzi‐Baiyun and Erdao‐Xiquegou areas. The spatial fluid isotope variation pattern also suggests another possible hydrothermal center at Baiyun‐Gujiapuzi. The ability to identify hydrothermal center(s) and delineate fluid migration pathways suggests that pyrite Fe isotopes can serve as a tool for precious and base metals prospecting.","PeriodicalId":21089,"journal":{"name":"Resource Geology","volume":"7 1","pages":"283 - 295"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2021-06-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"90744482","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
J. Fitzherbert, A. McKinnon, P. Blevin, K. Waltenberg, P. M. Downes, C. Wall, E. Matchan, Hui-Qing Huang
The Hera Au–Pb–Zn–Ag deposit in the southeastern Cobar Basin of central New South Wales preserves calc‐silicate veins and remnant sandstone/carbonate‐hosted skarn within a reduced anchizonal Siluro‐Devonian turbidite sequence. The skarn orebody distribution is controlled by a long‐lived, basin margin fault system, that has intersected a sedimentary horizon dominated by siliciclastic turbidite, with lesser gritstone and thick sandstone intervals, and rare carbonate‐bearing stratigraphy. Foliation (S1) envelopes the orebody and is crosscut by a series of late‐stage east–west and north–south trending faults. Skarn at Hera displays mineralogical zonation along strike, from southern spessartine–grossular–biotite–actinolite‐rich associations, to central diopside‐rich–zoisite–actinolite/tremolite–grossular‐bearing associations, through to the northern most tremolite–anorthite‐rich (garnet‐absent) association in remnant carbonate‐bearing lithologies and sandstone horizons; the northern lodes also display zonation down dip to garnet present associations. High‐T, prograde skarn assemblages rich in pyroxene and garnet are pervasively replaced by actinolite/tremolite–biotite‐rich retrograde skarn which coincides with the main pulse of sulfide mineralization. The dominant sulfides are high‐Fe–Mn sphalerite–galena–non‐magnetic high‐Fe pyrrhotite–chalcopyrite; pyrite, arsenopyrite; scheelite (low Mo) is locally abundant. The distribution of metals in part mimics the changing gangue mineralogy, with Au concentrated in the southern and lower northern lode systems and broadly inverse concentrations for Ag–Pb–Zn. Stable isotope data (O–H–S) from skarn amphiboles and associated sulfides are consistent with magmatic (or metamorphic) water and sulfur input during the retrograde skarn phase, while hydrosilicates and sulfides from the wall rocks display comparatively elevated δD and mixed δ34S consistent with progressive mixing or dilution of original magmatic (or metamorphic) waters within the Hera deposit by unexchanged waters typical of low latitude (tropical) meteoritic waters. High precision titanite (U–Pb) and biotite (Ar–Ar) geochronology reveals a manifold orebody commencing with high‐T skarn and retrograde Pb–Zn‐rich skarn formation at ≥403 Ma, Au–low‐Fe sphalerite mineralization at 403.4 ± 1.1 Ma, foliation development remobilization or new mineralization at 390 ± 0.2 Ma followed by thrusting, orebody dismemberment at 384.8 ± 1.1 Ma and remobilization or new mineralization at 381.0 ± 2.2 Ma. The polymetallic nature of the Hera orebody is a result of multiple mineralization events during extension and compression and involving both magmatic and likely formational metal sources.
{"title":"The Hera orebody: A complex distal (Au–Zn–Pb–Ag–Cu) skarn in the Cobar Basin of central New South Wales, Australia","authors":"J. Fitzherbert, A. McKinnon, P. Blevin, K. Waltenberg, P. M. Downes, C. Wall, E. Matchan, Hui-Qing Huang","doi":"10.1111/rge.12262","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/rge.12262","url":null,"abstract":"The Hera Au–Pb–Zn–Ag deposit in the southeastern Cobar Basin of central New South Wales preserves calc‐silicate veins and remnant sandstone/carbonate‐hosted skarn within a reduced anchizonal Siluro‐Devonian turbidite sequence. The skarn orebody distribution is controlled by a long‐lived, basin margin fault system, that has intersected a sedimentary horizon dominated by siliciclastic turbidite, with lesser gritstone and thick sandstone intervals, and rare carbonate‐bearing stratigraphy. Foliation (S1) envelopes the orebody and is crosscut by a series of late‐stage east–west and north–south trending faults. Skarn at Hera displays mineralogical zonation along strike, from southern spessartine–grossular–biotite–actinolite‐rich associations, to central diopside‐rich–zoisite–actinolite/tremolite–grossular‐bearing associations, through to the northern most tremolite–anorthite‐rich (garnet‐absent) association in remnant carbonate‐bearing lithologies and sandstone horizons; the northern lodes also display zonation down dip to garnet present associations. High‐T, prograde skarn assemblages rich in pyroxene and garnet are pervasively replaced by actinolite/tremolite–biotite‐rich retrograde skarn which coincides with the main pulse of sulfide mineralization. The dominant sulfides are high‐Fe–Mn sphalerite–galena–non‐magnetic high‐Fe pyrrhotite–chalcopyrite; pyrite, arsenopyrite; scheelite (low Mo) is locally abundant. The distribution of metals in part mimics the changing gangue mineralogy, with Au concentrated in the southern and lower northern lode systems and broadly inverse concentrations for Ag–Pb–Zn. Stable isotope data (O–H–S) from skarn amphiboles and associated sulfides are consistent with magmatic (or metamorphic) water and sulfur input during the retrograde skarn phase, while hydrosilicates and sulfides from the wall rocks display comparatively elevated δD and mixed δ34S consistent with progressive mixing or dilution of original magmatic (or metamorphic) waters within the Hera deposit by unexchanged waters typical of low latitude (tropical) meteoritic waters. High precision titanite (U–Pb) and biotite (Ar–Ar) geochronology reveals a manifold orebody commencing with high‐T skarn and retrograde Pb–Zn‐rich skarn formation at ≥403 Ma, Au–low‐Fe sphalerite mineralization at 403.4 ± 1.1 Ma, foliation development remobilization or new mineralization at 390 ± 0.2 Ma followed by thrusting, orebody dismemberment at 384.8 ± 1.1 Ma and remobilization or new mineralization at 381.0 ± 2.2 Ma. The polymetallic nature of the Hera orebody is a result of multiple mineralization events during extension and compression and involving both magmatic and likely formational metal sources.","PeriodicalId":21089,"journal":{"name":"Resource Geology","volume":"73 1","pages":"296 - 319"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2021-06-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"80954945","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Liang Li, De-xin Zhang, Shucheng Tan, F. Sun, Chao Wang, Tuofei Zhao, Shijin Li, Yanqian Yang
Shitoukengde is an important magmatic Ni–Cu sulfide deposit in the Eastern Kunlun Orogenic Belt (EKOB). It comprises several mafic–ultramafic complexes and contains different kinds of mafic–ultramafic rocks. Lherzolite and olivine websterite are the most significant Ni–Cu‐hosted rocks. The No. I complex hosts six Ni–Cu ore bodies, and the depth of the intrusion has great exploration potential. Therefore, geochronology, geochemistry, and mineral chemistry of the Shitoukengde deposit were studied to constrain its mineralization time, parental magma composition, and crustal contamination process. Zircon U–Pb dating of olivine websterite shows the magmatic origin (Th/U = 0.40–1.05) and an age of 418.1 ± 8.7 Ma (MSWD = 0.01), which is coeval with the Xiarihamu, Akechukesai, and other Cu–Ni deposits in the EKOB. Geochemically, the mafic–ultramafic rocks are characterized by low SiO2, TiO2, and Na2O + K2O and high MgO (9.49–36.02%), with Mg# values of 80–87. They are relatively enriched in LREE and LILEs (e.g., K, Rb, and Th), with weakly positive Eu anomalies (δEu = 0.83–2.26), but depleted in HFSEs (e. g., Ta, Nb, Zr, and Ti). Based on the electron microprobe analyses, all of the olivines are chrysolite (Fo = 81–86), and the pyroxenes are dominated by clinoenstatite (En = 80–84) and augite (En = 49–55) in the mafic–ultramafic rocks. Therefore, the composition of parental magma is estimated to be picritic basaltic magma with SiO2 and MgO concentrations of 54.47 and 13.95%, respectively. The zircon εHf(t) values of olivine websterite vary from −0.8 to 4.6, with a TDM1 of 0.84–1.06 Ga, indicating that the parental magma was derived from relatively high degree partial melting (about 13.4%) of a depleted mantle source and experienced significant crustal contamination (about 12–16%). We propose that crustal assimilation, rather than fractional crystallization, played a key role in triggering the sulfide saturation of the Shitoukengde deposit, and the metallogenesis of “deep liquation–pulsing injection” is the key mechanism underlying its formation. The parental magma, before intruding, underwent liquation and partial crystallization at depth, partitioning into barren, ore‐bearing, and ore‐rich magma and ore pulp, and was then injected multiple times, resulting in the formation of the Shitoukengde Ni–Cu deposit.
{"title":"The parental magma composition, crustal contamination process, and metallogenesis of the Shitoukengde Ni‐Cu sulfide deposit in the Eastern Kunlun Orogenic Belt, NW China","authors":"Liang Li, De-xin Zhang, Shucheng Tan, F. Sun, Chao Wang, Tuofei Zhao, Shijin Li, Yanqian Yang","doi":"10.1111/rge.12267","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/rge.12267","url":null,"abstract":"Shitoukengde is an important magmatic Ni–Cu sulfide deposit in the Eastern Kunlun Orogenic Belt (EKOB). It comprises several mafic–ultramafic complexes and contains different kinds of mafic–ultramafic rocks. Lherzolite and olivine websterite are the most significant Ni–Cu‐hosted rocks. The No. I complex hosts six Ni–Cu ore bodies, and the depth of the intrusion has great exploration potential. Therefore, geochronology, geochemistry, and mineral chemistry of the Shitoukengde deposit were studied to constrain its mineralization time, parental magma composition, and crustal contamination process. Zircon U–Pb dating of olivine websterite shows the magmatic origin (Th/U = 0.40–1.05) and an age of 418.1 ± 8.7 Ma (MSWD = 0.01), which is coeval with the Xiarihamu, Akechukesai, and other Cu–Ni deposits in the EKOB. Geochemically, the mafic–ultramafic rocks are characterized by low SiO2, TiO2, and Na2O + K2O and high MgO (9.49–36.02%), with Mg# values of 80–87. They are relatively enriched in LREE and LILEs (e.g., K, Rb, and Th), with weakly positive Eu anomalies (δEu = 0.83–2.26), but depleted in HFSEs (e. g., Ta, Nb, Zr, and Ti). Based on the electron microprobe analyses, all of the olivines are chrysolite (Fo = 81–86), and the pyroxenes are dominated by clinoenstatite (En = 80–84) and augite (En = 49–55) in the mafic–ultramafic rocks. Therefore, the composition of parental magma is estimated to be picritic basaltic magma with SiO2 and MgO concentrations of 54.47 and 13.95%, respectively. The zircon εHf(t) values of olivine websterite vary from −0.8 to 4.6, with a TDM1 of 0.84–1.06 Ga, indicating that the parental magma was derived from relatively high degree partial melting (about 13.4%) of a depleted mantle source and experienced significant crustal contamination (about 12–16%). We propose that crustal assimilation, rather than fractional crystallization, played a key role in triggering the sulfide saturation of the Shitoukengde deposit, and the metallogenesis of “deep liquation–pulsing injection” is the key mechanism underlying its formation. The parental magma, before intruding, underwent liquation and partial crystallization at depth, partitioning into barren, ore‐bearing, and ore‐rich magma and ore pulp, and was then injected multiple times, resulting in the formation of the Shitoukengde Ni–Cu deposit.","PeriodicalId":21089,"journal":{"name":"Resource Geology","volume":"294 ","pages":"339 - 362"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2021-06-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1111/rge.12267","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"72541134","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Considering the material balances of the constituents including solid phases, replacement reaction of the sphalerite‐galena pair in chloride solution is examined quantitatively under equilibrium conditions of 250°C, water saturation vapor pressure, and initial Cl concentration of 1 mol/L. NaCl+PbCl2 solution with solid sphalerite, dissolves and releases both total Zn and total S of 1.26 × 10−5 mol/L into the solution under without or lower PbCl2 concentration. If the PbCl2 concentration is higher than 1.32 × 10−6 mol/L, precipitation of galena as replacement occurs, suggesting that sphalerite has an ability to trap a lower concentration of Pb. If PbCl2 concentration of the solution is higher than 1.32 × 10−6 mol/L, the majority of Pb deposited as galena with using sulfur originated from solid sphalerite dissolved, and the amount of Zn from sphalerite equivalent to the amount of galena deposited releases into the solution. On the other hand, NaCl+ZnCl2 solution with solid galena under the same environmental conditions, dissolves and releases both total Pb and total S of 6.43 × 10−6 mol/L into the solution under without or lower ZnCl2 concentration. Over the ZnCl2 concentration of 6.40 × 10−5 mol/L in the solution, precipitation of sphalerite occurs, indicating that galena cannot trap a low concentration of Zn. Zinc would drain away from the hydrothermal depositional environment under the presence of only galena. These relationships are controlled mainly by the reaction of predominant metal chloride or metal hydroxide species in the solution. Sphalerite is a good scavenger for Pb, but galena is not for Zn.
{"title":"Sphalerite‐galena replacement in sodium chloride solution: A thermodynamic approach","authors":"K. Komuro","doi":"10.1111/rge.12265","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/rge.12265","url":null,"abstract":"Considering the material balances of the constituents including solid phases, replacement reaction of the sphalerite‐galena pair in chloride solution is examined quantitatively under equilibrium conditions of 250°C, water saturation vapor pressure, and initial Cl concentration of 1 mol/L. NaCl+PbCl2 solution with solid sphalerite, dissolves and releases both total Zn and total S of 1.26 × 10−5 mol/L into the solution under without or lower PbCl2 concentration. If the PbCl2 concentration is higher than 1.32 × 10−6 mol/L, precipitation of galena as replacement occurs, suggesting that sphalerite has an ability to trap a lower concentration of Pb. If PbCl2 concentration of the solution is higher than 1.32 × 10−6 mol/L, the majority of Pb deposited as galena with using sulfur originated from solid sphalerite dissolved, and the amount of Zn from sphalerite equivalent to the amount of galena deposited releases into the solution. On the other hand, NaCl+ZnCl2 solution with solid galena under the same environmental conditions, dissolves and releases both total Pb and total S of 6.43 × 10−6 mol/L into the solution under without or lower ZnCl2 concentration. Over the ZnCl2 concentration of 6.40 × 10−5 mol/L in the solution, precipitation of sphalerite occurs, indicating that galena cannot trap a low concentration of Zn. Zinc would drain away from the hydrothermal depositional environment under the presence of only galena. These relationships are controlled mainly by the reaction of predominant metal chloride or metal hydroxide species in the solution. Sphalerite is a good scavenger for Pb, but galena is not for Zn.","PeriodicalId":21089,"journal":{"name":"Resource Geology","volume":"26 1","pages":"250 - 254"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2021-05-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"72769155","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
A. Ito, T. Otake, A. Maulana, K. Sanematsu, Sufriadin, Tsutomu Sato
Indonesia is one of the largest Ni ore producers in the world and is also expected to be an important potential source of some critical metals (e.g., Co, Sc, rare‐earth elements, and platinum‐group elements). However, few studies have examined Ni laterite deposits in this country. In this study, we investigate Ni enrichment and the potential accumulation of critical metals in four laterite profiles with varying degrees of serpentinization and weathering intensity in the Soroako and Pomalaa mining areas of Sulawesi, Indonesia. We integrate geochemical evaluation with a mass‐balance approach and mineralogical analysis to better constrain the geochemical factors influencing the mobilization of Ni during lateritization. Nickel contents in the saprolite horizon of the profiles that are strongly weathered and developed over serpentinized peridotite are higher than those that are weakly weathered and developed over unserpentinized harzburgite. The bulk Ni contents of saprolite horizons are related to Ni contents of Ni‐bearing Mg‐phyllosilicates, which suggests that Ni remobilization is the main control on Ni enrichment in the profiles. Mass‐balance calculations reveal that the amounts of gained Fe and Ni in the profiles are positively correlated. This relationship indicates that the redistribution of Ni is likely controlled by the aging of Ni‐bearing goethite (dissolution/recrystallization) involving ligand‐promoted dissolution by organic matter and/or reductive dissolution by microbial activity near the surface. Critical metals show enrichment in specific horizons. Enrichments in Co and rare‐earth elements are strongly influenced by the formation of Mn‐oxyhydroxides in the oxide zone of the profiles. In contrast, Sc, Pt, and Pd show residual enrichment patterns, with grades influenced mainly by their initial contents in bedrock. The profiles show a positive correlation between Sc and Fe, as reported for other Ni laterite deposits. Among the critical metals, Sc, Pt, and Pd contents in the studied profiles are comparable with values reported from other Ni laterite deposits worldwide.
{"title":"Geochemical constraints on the mobilization of Ni and critical metals in laterite deposits, Sulawesi, Indonesia: A mass‐balance approach","authors":"A. Ito, T. Otake, A. Maulana, K. Sanematsu, Sufriadin, Tsutomu Sato","doi":"10.1111/rge.12266","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/rge.12266","url":null,"abstract":"Indonesia is one of the largest Ni ore producers in the world and is also expected to be an important potential source of some critical metals (e.g., Co, Sc, rare‐earth elements, and platinum‐group elements). However, few studies have examined Ni laterite deposits in this country. In this study, we investigate Ni enrichment and the potential accumulation of critical metals in four laterite profiles with varying degrees of serpentinization and weathering intensity in the Soroako and Pomalaa mining areas of Sulawesi, Indonesia. We integrate geochemical evaluation with a mass‐balance approach and mineralogical analysis to better constrain the geochemical factors influencing the mobilization of Ni during lateritization. Nickel contents in the saprolite horizon of the profiles that are strongly weathered and developed over serpentinized peridotite are higher than those that are weakly weathered and developed over unserpentinized harzburgite. The bulk Ni contents of saprolite horizons are related to Ni contents of Ni‐bearing Mg‐phyllosilicates, which suggests that Ni remobilization is the main control on Ni enrichment in the profiles. Mass‐balance calculations reveal that the amounts of gained Fe and Ni in the profiles are positively correlated. This relationship indicates that the redistribution of Ni is likely controlled by the aging of Ni‐bearing goethite (dissolution/recrystallization) involving ligand‐promoted dissolution by organic matter and/or reductive dissolution by microbial activity near the surface. Critical metals show enrichment in specific horizons. Enrichments in Co and rare‐earth elements are strongly influenced by the formation of Mn‐oxyhydroxides in the oxide zone of the profiles. In contrast, Sc, Pt, and Pd show residual enrichment patterns, with grades influenced mainly by their initial contents in bedrock. The profiles show a positive correlation between Sc and Fe, as reported for other Ni laterite deposits. Among the critical metals, Sc, Pt, and Pd contents in the studied profiles are comparable with values reported from other Ni laterite deposits worldwide.","PeriodicalId":21089,"journal":{"name":"Resource Geology","volume":"2 1","pages":"255 - 282"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2021-05-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"90069186","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Southern Korean peninsula comprises five major geotectonic provinces, throughout which various metallic deposits are distributed. We reviewed sulfur isotope data (n = 1,574) of sulfide minerals collected from previous works for 177 metallic deposits in the provinces to interpret the sulfur isotope characteristics of each province, comprising different wall rocks and geologic settings. The averaged δ34S values of each metallic deposit associated with Precambrian metamorphic rocks and Jurassic granitoids in the Gyeonggi massif and Yeongnam massif range from −7.1 to +10.3‰ (av. +4.5‰) and from −3.6 to +7.8‰ (av. +3.5‰), respectively. The Taebaeksan basin produced the highest δ34S value among the five, −0.4 to +13.2‰ (av. +6.1‰). This was influenced by sulfate sulfur derived from marine carbonate host rock. The Okcheon metamorphic belt, comprising metasedimentary and metavolcanics rocks, shows an isotope range from +1.9 to +8.3‰ (av. +5.7‰). The sulfur isotope distribution of the Gyeongsang basin with a range from −1.2 to +11.7‰ (av. +5.2‰) can be divided into two zones: higher δ34S values from the inner zone related to the volcanic rocks and magnetite‐series Cretaceous granitoids, and lower δ34S values from the outer zone related to the organic‐rich sedimentary rocks. Sulfur isotope variations of metallic deposits in each geotectonic province were mainly influenced by igneous sulfur and inherent wall rock sulfur sources, 32S‐enriched sedimentary sulfur (e.g., Precambrian metasedimentary rocks and biogenic sulfur‐rich sedimentary rocks), and 34S‐enriched seawater sulfur (e.g., carbonates and acid to intermediate volcanic rocks). These wall rocks also contributed to the changes in δ34S values for granitoid rocks and metallic deposits by time, ore genetic type, and ore species in South Korea.
{"title":"Regional variations of sulfur isotope compositions for metallic deposits in South Korea","authors":"Jaeguk Jo, Young-Hun Jeong, Dongbok Shin","doi":"10.1111/rge.12259","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/rge.12259","url":null,"abstract":"Southern Korean peninsula comprises five major geotectonic provinces, throughout which various metallic deposits are distributed. We reviewed sulfur isotope data (n = 1,574) of sulfide minerals collected from previous works for 177 metallic deposits in the provinces to interpret the sulfur isotope characteristics of each province, comprising different wall rocks and geologic settings. The averaged δ34S values of each metallic deposit associated with Precambrian metamorphic rocks and Jurassic granitoids in the Gyeonggi massif and Yeongnam massif range from −7.1 to +10.3‰ (av. +4.5‰) and from −3.6 to +7.8‰ (av. +3.5‰), respectively. The Taebaeksan basin produced the highest δ34S value among the five, −0.4 to +13.2‰ (av. +6.1‰). This was influenced by sulfate sulfur derived from marine carbonate host rock. The Okcheon metamorphic belt, comprising metasedimentary and metavolcanics rocks, shows an isotope range from +1.9 to +8.3‰ (av. +5.7‰). The sulfur isotope distribution of the Gyeongsang basin with a range from −1.2 to +11.7‰ (av. +5.2‰) can be divided into two zones: higher δ34S values from the inner zone related to the volcanic rocks and magnetite‐series Cretaceous granitoids, and lower δ34S values from the outer zone related to the organic‐rich sedimentary rocks. Sulfur isotope variations of metallic deposits in each geotectonic province were mainly influenced by igneous sulfur and inherent wall rock sulfur sources, 32S‐enriched sedimentary sulfur (e.g., Precambrian metasedimentary rocks and biogenic sulfur‐rich sedimentary rocks), and 34S‐enriched seawater sulfur (e.g., carbonates and acid to intermediate volcanic rocks). These wall rocks also contributed to the changes in δ34S values for granitoid rocks and metallic deposits by time, ore genetic type, and ore species in South Korea.","PeriodicalId":21089,"journal":{"name":"Resource Geology","volume":"26 1","pages":"202 - 225"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2021-04-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"72667023","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Khan Altai Au deposit is located near the N margin of the Neoproterozoic‐Cambrian Lake terrain in SW Mongolia, about 5 km from its contact with the Proterozoic‐Archean Baydrag craton, and 18 km SE of the Khantaishir ophiolite, which was emplaced in the Late Cambrian. The host rocks are strongly deformed and metamorphosed to lower greenschist facies, and of uncertain age. They comprise a sequence of rhyolitic volcaniclastics and porphyritic flows interbedded with laminated siltstone, basaltic andesite and faulted against dolomite. Low‐grade gold mineralization (up to 2 ppm Au) is hosted mainly in rhyolitic volcanics and extends over an area of about 1,100 × 160 m with a vertical extent of about 200 m. It is associated with disseminated pyrite (2–10% by vol) but includes high‐grade zones (up to 183 ppm Au over 1 m) related to cm‐wide quartz‐native Au‐pyrite veins. The Au mineralized zone also encompasses VMS mineralization (currently of minor extent), characterized by massive pyrite‐sphalerite lenses and quartz‐chalcopyrite stringer zones. A larger VMS deposit (Ereen Budagt, about 10 Mt sulfide ore) is found 6 km to the SSE in a similar geological setting. The main alteration assemblage is quartz‐white mica‐albite, but with minor carbonate, chlorite, epidote‐actinolite and pyrophyllite‐diaspore‐dickite alteration. Gold mineralization is related to zones of strong tectonic foliation and formation of phengitic white mica, with an outward zonation to high Al white mica. Pyrite is typically euhedral, and exhibits concentric growth zones, as well as quartz pressure shadows to enclosing foliation, consistent with syngenetic growth during metamorphism and deformation. Other sulfides include arsenopyrite, sphalerite and possible marcasite. Preliminary LA‐ICPMS mapping shows pyrite rims are enriched in Au, As, Co, Cu, Ni, Pb, Ag, Mo and Se, the pyrite core is enriched in Co, Bi, Te, and rhyolitic host rock is enriched in K, Ba, V and Tl. Whole rock geochemistry of basaltic andesite to rhyolite, shows N‐MORB characteristics for basaltic andesite, as well as a subduction signature for all rocks, and high MgO (~8%), TiO2 (~1%) and low Ni, Cr content in basalt, compatible with a back arc tectonic setting.
{"title":"Geology, mineralization and short wave infrared alteration mapping of the Khan Altai Au deposit, Mongolia","authors":"Khaliunaa Iderbat, Mandalbayar Ganbat, Nyamdorj Densmaa, Bat-Erdene Khashgerel, Davaa-ochir Dashbaatar, I. Kavalieris","doi":"10.1111/rge.12260","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/rge.12260","url":null,"abstract":"Khan Altai Au deposit is located near the N margin of the Neoproterozoic‐Cambrian Lake terrain in SW Mongolia, about 5 km from its contact with the Proterozoic‐Archean Baydrag craton, and 18 km SE of the Khantaishir ophiolite, which was emplaced in the Late Cambrian. The host rocks are strongly deformed and metamorphosed to lower greenschist facies, and of uncertain age. They comprise a sequence of rhyolitic volcaniclastics and porphyritic flows interbedded with laminated siltstone, basaltic andesite and faulted against dolomite. Low‐grade gold mineralization (up to 2 ppm Au) is hosted mainly in rhyolitic volcanics and extends over an area of about 1,100 × 160 m with a vertical extent of about 200 m. It is associated with disseminated pyrite (2–10% by vol) but includes high‐grade zones (up to 183 ppm Au over 1 m) related to cm‐wide quartz‐native Au‐pyrite veins. The Au mineralized zone also encompasses VMS mineralization (currently of minor extent), characterized by massive pyrite‐sphalerite lenses and quartz‐chalcopyrite stringer zones. A larger VMS deposit (Ereen Budagt, about 10 Mt sulfide ore) is found 6 km to the SSE in a similar geological setting. The main alteration assemblage is quartz‐white mica‐albite, but with minor carbonate, chlorite, epidote‐actinolite and pyrophyllite‐diaspore‐dickite alteration. Gold mineralization is related to zones of strong tectonic foliation and formation of phengitic white mica, with an outward zonation to high Al white mica. Pyrite is typically euhedral, and exhibits concentric growth zones, as well as quartz pressure shadows to enclosing foliation, consistent with syngenetic growth during metamorphism and deformation. Other sulfides include arsenopyrite, sphalerite and possible marcasite. Preliminary LA‐ICPMS mapping shows pyrite rims are enriched in Au, As, Co, Cu, Ni, Pb, Ag, Mo and Se, the pyrite core is enriched in Co, Bi, Te, and rhyolitic host rock is enriched in K, Ba, V and Tl. Whole rock geochemistry of basaltic andesite to rhyolite, shows N‐MORB characteristics for basaltic andesite, as well as a subduction signature for all rocks, and high MgO (~8%), TiO2 (~1%) and low Ni, Cr content in basalt, compatible with a back arc tectonic setting.","PeriodicalId":21089,"journal":{"name":"Resource Geology","volume":"53 1","pages":"226 - 241"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2021-04-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"72725484","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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