Pub Date : 2023-11-08DOI: 10.1080/23744731.2023.2279466
Amanda L. Webb, Apoorv Khanuja
AbstractThe growth of legislation to reduce energy use in existing buildings is producing a rich new trove of data about energy efficiency measures (EEMs), which has the potential to unlock new insights into the built environment. However, the lack of standardized EEM naming conventions and categorization methods is currently a major barrier to aggregating and analyzing this data. The goal of this study was to develop and test a novel standardized system for categorizing EEMs. The system consists of two components: a three-level building element-based categorization hierarchy, and a set of measure name tags, which are used to label an EEM and categorize it on the hierarchy. A demonstration and testing process was developed and applied to two sample datasets to evaluate the ability of the system to categorize a variety of EEMs. The results show that most EEMs can easily be categorized manually according to the new system, and highlight several challenges for automated categorization, including EEM names that are missing an element, contain a term not in the tag list, or contain synonyms or abbreviations. These results provide a replicable and systematic framework for the translation, aggregation, and analysis of EEM datasets from different sources.DisclaimerAs a service to authors and researchers we are providing this version of an accepted manuscript (AM). Copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proofs will be undertaken on this manuscript before final publication of the Version of Record (VoR). During production and pre-press, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal relate to these versions also.
{"title":"Developing a standardized categorization system for energy efficiency measures (1836-RP)","authors":"Amanda L. Webb, Apoorv Khanuja","doi":"10.1080/23744731.2023.2279466","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/23744731.2023.2279466","url":null,"abstract":"AbstractThe growth of legislation to reduce energy use in existing buildings is producing a rich new trove of data about energy efficiency measures (EEMs), which has the potential to unlock new insights into the built environment. However, the lack of standardized EEM naming conventions and categorization methods is currently a major barrier to aggregating and analyzing this data. The goal of this study was to develop and test a novel standardized system for categorizing EEMs. The system consists of two components: a three-level building element-based categorization hierarchy, and a set of measure name tags, which are used to label an EEM and categorize it on the hierarchy. A demonstration and testing process was developed and applied to two sample datasets to evaluate the ability of the system to categorize a variety of EEMs. The results show that most EEMs can easily be categorized manually according to the new system, and highlight several challenges for automated categorization, including EEM names that are missing an element, contain a term not in the tag list, or contain synonyms or abbreviations. These results provide a replicable and systematic framework for the translation, aggregation, and analysis of EEM datasets from different sources.DisclaimerAs a service to authors and researchers we are providing this version of an accepted manuscript (AM). Copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proofs will be undertaken on this manuscript before final publication of the Version of Record (VoR). During production and pre-press, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal relate to these versions also.","PeriodicalId":21556,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology for the Built Environment","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-11-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135342031","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-11-06DOI: 10.1080/23744731.2023.2279468
Gabrielle Beaudry, Philippe Pasquier, Alain Nguyen
AbstractFlowrate control can have a significant positive impact on the thermal performance and economic profitability of ground-source heat pump systems. Including dynamic advective processes in the design phase, however, remains a challenging task, as few computationally efficient modeling tools allow for their adequate and accurate representation. The present work addresses this issue by presenting new formulations of non-stationary convolutions, an efficient simulation algorithm that relies on the theory of linear time-variant systems for predicting the thermal response of a ground heat exchanger to both dynamic heat loads and flow rates. First, the new original formulations are presented, which include 1) a simple time-domain expression and 2) a fast frequency-domain expression. Then, the efficiency and validity of the new formulations are verified using experimental multi-flowrate thermal response tests involving dynamic circulation, pumping and bleed flow rates in closed-loop and standing column well ground heat exchangers. Results show that the new formulations can reproduce the outlet fluid temperature of both experimental test cases with good accuracy ( MAE=0.06∘C and 0.26∘C, respectively). At last, the high efficiency of the new frequency-domain expression is demonstrated, with the computing times (0.04 s and 0.01 s) being 100 and 8 times faster than the original formulation in both scenarios.Keywords: Ground-source heat pump systemtime-variant flowratessimulation of ground heat exchangernon-stationary convolutionDisclaimerAs a service to authors and researchers we are providing this version of an accepted manuscript (AM). Copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proofs will be undertaken on this manuscript before final publication of the Version of Record (VoR). During production and pre-press, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal relate to these versions also.
{"title":"New formulations and experimental validation of non-stationary convolutions for the fast simulation of time-variant flowrates in ground heat exchangers","authors":"Gabrielle Beaudry, Philippe Pasquier, Alain Nguyen","doi":"10.1080/23744731.2023.2279468","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/23744731.2023.2279468","url":null,"abstract":"AbstractFlowrate control can have a significant positive impact on the thermal performance and economic profitability of ground-source heat pump systems. Including dynamic advective processes in the design phase, however, remains a challenging task, as few computationally efficient modeling tools allow for their adequate and accurate representation. The present work addresses this issue by presenting new formulations of non-stationary convolutions, an efficient simulation algorithm that relies on the theory of linear time-variant systems for predicting the thermal response of a ground heat exchanger to both dynamic heat loads and flow rates. First, the new original formulations are presented, which include 1) a simple time-domain expression and 2) a fast frequency-domain expression. Then, the efficiency and validity of the new formulations are verified using experimental multi-flowrate thermal response tests involving dynamic circulation, pumping and bleed flow rates in closed-loop and standing column well ground heat exchangers. Results show that the new formulations can reproduce the outlet fluid temperature of both experimental test cases with good accuracy ( MAE=0.06∘C and 0.26∘C, respectively). At last, the high efficiency of the new frequency-domain expression is demonstrated, with the computing times (0.04 s and 0.01 s) being 100 and 8 times faster than the original formulation in both scenarios.Keywords: Ground-source heat pump systemtime-variant flowratessimulation of ground heat exchangernon-stationary convolutionDisclaimerAs a service to authors and researchers we are providing this version of an accepted manuscript (AM). Copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proofs will be undertaken on this manuscript before final publication of the Version of Record (VoR). During production and pre-press, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal relate to these versions also.","PeriodicalId":21556,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology for the Built Environment","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-11-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135678779","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-11-03DOI: 10.1080/23744731.2023.2276011
Milica Grahovac, Paul Ehrlich, Jianjun Hu, Michael Wetter
ABSTRACTThe paper presents a comparative simulation-based control logic design process. It uses the Control Description Language (CDL) and the ASHRAE Guideline 36 high-performing building control sequences with the Modelica Buildings Library (MBL) to demonstrate a comparative analysis of two control designs for a data center chilled water plant.Details include a description of the closed-loop plant and control design methodology, including sizing and parameterization, base and alternative (Guideline 36) control logic with software implementation structure, and outline the simulation experimentation process. The selected control designs are paired with comparable chilled water plant configurations. The models include a chiller, a water-side economizer, and an evaporative cooling tower. The plant provides cooling at 27°C zone supply air temperature to a data center in Sacramento, CA, USA.The comparative simulation results examined the impacts of a selected control logic detail, and present an example model-based design application. Overall, the simulation results showed a 25% annual and a 18% summer energy use reduction for alternative controls.This shows that simulation-based control logic design performance evaluation can improve energy efficiency and resilience aspects of system controls at large.Units and additional abbreviations are provided directly in the text where needed.DisclaimerAs a service to authors and researchers we are providing this version of an accepted manuscript (AM). Copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proofs will be undertaken on this manuscript before final publication of the Version of Record (VoR). During production and pre-press, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal relate to these versions also.
{"title":"Model-based Data Center Cooling Controls Comparative Co-design","authors":"Milica Grahovac, Paul Ehrlich, Jianjun Hu, Michael Wetter","doi":"10.1080/23744731.2023.2276011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/23744731.2023.2276011","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACTThe paper presents a comparative simulation-based control logic design process. It uses the Control Description Language (CDL) and the ASHRAE Guideline 36 high-performing building control sequences with the Modelica Buildings Library (MBL) to demonstrate a comparative analysis of two control designs for a data center chilled water plant.Details include a description of the closed-loop plant and control design methodology, including sizing and parameterization, base and alternative (Guideline 36) control logic with software implementation structure, and outline the simulation experimentation process. The selected control designs are paired with comparable chilled water plant configurations. The models include a chiller, a water-side economizer, and an evaporative cooling tower. The plant provides cooling at 27°C zone supply air temperature to a data center in Sacramento, CA, USA.The comparative simulation results examined the impacts of a selected control logic detail, and present an example model-based design application. Overall, the simulation results showed a 25% annual and a 18% summer energy use reduction for alternative controls.This shows that simulation-based control logic design performance evaluation can improve energy efficiency and resilience aspects of system controls at large.Units and additional abbreviations are provided directly in the text where needed.DisclaimerAs a service to authors and researchers we are providing this version of an accepted manuscript (AM). Copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proofs will be undertaken on this manuscript before final publication of the Version of Record (VoR). During production and pre-press, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal relate to these versions also.","PeriodicalId":21556,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology for the Built Environment","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-11-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135868038","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-10-30DOI: 10.1080/23744731.2023.2276012
Max St-Jacques, Scott Bucking, William O'Brien, Iain MacDonald
{"title":"Spatio-temporal electrical grid emission factors effects on calculated GHG emissions of buildings in mixed-grid environments","authors":"Max St-Jacques, Scott Bucking, William O'Brien, Iain MacDonald","doi":"10.1080/23744731.2023.2276012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/23744731.2023.2276012","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":21556,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology for the Built Environment","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136103792","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-10-30DOI: 10.1080/23744731.2023.2277113
None Alexandre Noël, Massimo Cimmino
{"title":"Topology optimization of geothermal bore fields using the method of moving asymptotes","authors":"None Alexandre Noël, Massimo Cimmino","doi":"10.1080/23744731.2023.2277113","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/23744731.2023.2277113","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":21556,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology for the Built Environment","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136104100","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-10-26DOI: 10.1080/23744731.2023.2276010
Joshua Rothe, Jerin Robins Ebanesar, Lorenzo Cremaschi
AbstractWith new low-GWP HFO refrigerants, the heat transfer performances and methods for decreasing system refrigerant inventory are receiving increasing interest. In shell-and-tube heat exchangers, refrigerant distribution via pressurized liquid spray has the potential for high heat transfer performance while reducing refrigerant charge. However, no published studies have investigated LGWP refrigerants with spray evaporation on tube bundles. A test apparatus was constructed to measure the shell-side heat transfer coefficients of R1234ze(E) on bundles of tubes with two different enhanced-surface types and in two different bundle geometries at various refrigerant saturation temperatures. The results showed strong dependence on refrigerant properties, tube heat flux, enhanced-surface type, bundle geometry, and refrigerant inlet subcooling. The bundle heat transfer coefficients of R1234ze(E) were similar to that of R134a in the same test setup, usually within ±15% for similar conditions. In both cases, they first increased with the heat flux until a local maximum value was achieved. A localized dryout of the tubes at the bottom of the bundle penalized the overall bundle heat transfer coefficient at very high heat flux. For the condensing surface, bundle heat transfer coefficients rarely exceeded 10 kW/m2-K, whereas values in excess of 30 kW/m2-K were sometimes seen for the evaporating surface.Keywords: LGWP refrigerantsspray evaporationenhanced surfacestube bundlesSubject classification codes: include these here if the journal requires themDisclaimerAs a service to authors and researchers we are providing this version of an accepted manuscript (AM). Copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proofs will be undertaken on this manuscript before final publication of the Version of Record (VoR). During production and pre-press, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal relate to these versions also.
{"title":"Tube Bundle Evaporators with LGWP Refrigerant R1234ze(E)","authors":"Joshua Rothe, Jerin Robins Ebanesar, Lorenzo Cremaschi","doi":"10.1080/23744731.2023.2276010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/23744731.2023.2276010","url":null,"abstract":"AbstractWith new low-GWP HFO refrigerants, the heat transfer performances and methods for decreasing system refrigerant inventory are receiving increasing interest. In shell-and-tube heat exchangers, refrigerant distribution via pressurized liquid spray has the potential for high heat transfer performance while reducing refrigerant charge. However, no published studies have investigated LGWP refrigerants with spray evaporation on tube bundles. A test apparatus was constructed to measure the shell-side heat transfer coefficients of R1234ze(E) on bundles of tubes with two different enhanced-surface types and in two different bundle geometries at various refrigerant saturation temperatures. The results showed strong dependence on refrigerant properties, tube heat flux, enhanced-surface type, bundle geometry, and refrigerant inlet subcooling. The bundle heat transfer coefficients of R1234ze(E) were similar to that of R134a in the same test setup, usually within ±15% for similar conditions. In both cases, they first increased with the heat flux until a local maximum value was achieved. A localized dryout of the tubes at the bottom of the bundle penalized the overall bundle heat transfer coefficient at very high heat flux. For the condensing surface, bundle heat transfer coefficients rarely exceeded 10 kW/m2-K, whereas values in excess of 30 kW/m2-K were sometimes seen for the evaporating surface.Keywords: LGWP refrigerantsspray evaporationenhanced surfacestube bundlesSubject classification codes: include these here if the journal requires themDisclaimerAs a service to authors and researchers we are providing this version of an accepted manuscript (AM). Copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proofs will be undertaken on this manuscript before final publication of the Version of Record (VoR). During production and pre-press, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal relate to these versions also.","PeriodicalId":21556,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology for the Built Environment","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136376667","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-10-21DOI: 10.1080/23744731.2023.2273660
Kristen Cetin, Brian M. Fronk
{"title":"Broadening participation in ASHRAE conferences: Innovative research in the built environment presented at the 2022 ASHRAE Annual Conference","authors":"Kristen Cetin, Brian M. Fronk","doi":"10.1080/23744731.2023.2273660","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/23744731.2023.2273660","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":21556,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology for the Built Environment","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135513875","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-10-18DOI: 10.1080/23744731.2023.2266349
Alicia R. Urrutia, Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Charles N. Kimble, Kathryn C. Worrilow
Many facility acquired infection (FAI) causing pathogens are airborne and controlling them is critical to preventing illness. An advanced air purification technology (AAPT) was designed to inactivate the genetic material of pathogens and remediate volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This study explores the effect of the AAPT on critical metrics in multiple healthcare settings. The AAPT was installed in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) ductwork of a hospital’s medical surgical floor (ACH-MSF), a second hospital’s post-anesthesia care unit (PACU), intensive care unit (ICU) and medical surgical (MS) unit, and in a senior living facility’s (SLF) memory support unit. In all installations, the control area(s) were protected only by high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filtration. The measured airborne fungal levels, airborne and surface bacterial levels, and VOC levels decreased with installation of AAPT. The AAPT removed infectious airborne pathogens and reduced surface pathogens and VOCs. The ACH-MSF and SLF protected by the AAPT documented improved clinical and economic metrics including a 39.5% decrease in patient length of stay, 23% in cost savings improvement, and a 39.6% decrease in FAIs. The current findings support the hypothesis that indoor environmental quality impacts wellness and has potential applications to diverse indoor environments.
{"title":"The Clinical and Environmental Effects of an Advanced Air Purification Technology in Multiple Healthcare Settings","authors":"Alicia R. Urrutia, Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Charles N. Kimble, Kathryn C. Worrilow","doi":"10.1080/23744731.2023.2266349","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/23744731.2023.2266349","url":null,"abstract":"Many facility acquired infection (FAI) causing pathogens are airborne and controlling them is critical to preventing illness. An advanced air purification technology (AAPT) was designed to inactivate the genetic material of pathogens and remediate volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This study explores the effect of the AAPT on critical metrics in multiple healthcare settings. The AAPT was installed in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) ductwork of a hospital’s medical surgical floor (ACH-MSF), a second hospital’s post-anesthesia care unit (PACU), intensive care unit (ICU) and medical surgical (MS) unit, and in a senior living facility’s (SLF) memory support unit. In all installations, the control area(s) were protected only by high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filtration. The measured airborne fungal levels, airborne and surface bacterial levels, and VOC levels decreased with installation of AAPT. The AAPT removed infectious airborne pathogens and reduced surface pathogens and VOCs. The ACH-MSF and SLF protected by the AAPT documented improved clinical and economic metrics including a 39.5% decrease in patient length of stay, 23% in cost savings improvement, and a 39.6% decrease in FAIs. The current findings support the hypothesis that indoor environmental quality impacts wellness and has potential applications to diverse indoor environments.","PeriodicalId":21556,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology for the Built Environment","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135823705","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-10-18DOI: 10.1080/23744731.2023.2261808
Karen Fenaughty, Danny S. Parker, Joshua Butzbaugh, Carlos Colon
AbstractHeat pump water heaters (HPWH) are a proven method of reducing water heating energy use over prevailing electric resistance systems (ERWH). Both technologies lend themselves to enhanced control for peak load reduction. Laboratory tests were conducted in Central Florida using the CTA-2045 standard to evaluate load shifting strategies with connected water heaters. Four HPWHs from three manufacturers, including two different tank volumes were tested alongside an ERWH in a garage-like environment. Tests aimed to shift energy use away from utility peak load periods to off-peak times when excess renewable energy resources are available. Two load-shifting strategies were shown effective, Shed and Critical Peak, with variation by manufacturer. Beyond draw volume, other factors influenced HPWH load shifting:Florida winter conditions, which increase the energy used per draw, provided the greatest challenges to complete load shift. Inlet water temperature had a large impact on the success of load reduction. Ground temperatures in which water pipes were buried largely determined inlet water temperatures.HPWH efficiency setting: Heat pump water heaters often default to a “hybrid” mode that may use some electric resistance heat to minimize risk of running out of hot water. Operational mode can impact load shifting potential. BackgroundHeat pump water heaters (HPWH) are a well demonstrated technology to significantly reduce electricity consumption for meeting household hot water needs. A variety of monitored projects around the U.S. have shown savings of 50-70%, reflected by operational coefficient of performance (COP), relative to conventional electric resistance storage water heaters (Colon et al. 2016; Shapiro and Puttagunta 2016; Willem, Lin, and Lekov 2017). Within the last decade, systems have shown even higher operational COPs from improved compressors and other design enhancements. (Willem, Lin, and Lekov 2017).Beyond the ability to save water heating electricity, HPWHs can also cut peak demand. Many large utility providers in the southeast already have demand response and load management programs (Butzbaugh and Winiarski 2020) and may find value in promoting grid-connected HPWHs capable of load shifting if demonstrated to provide superior load control. This can be thought of as the ability to not only control utility-coincident peak loads, but also to alter the water heating electrical demand profile in a significant manner (e.g., alter electric load profile shape to consume a greater amount of daytime utility scale renewable energy). Current HPWHs and some ERWHs available for purchase are compatible with CTA-2045-A protocol (ANSI/CTA 2018). This protocol has demonstrated electric demand flexibility in the Northwest to provide a utility the ability to control when an appliance draws power from the grid (Metzger et al. 2018). And Carew et al (2018) have detailed simulation studies of load shifting with HPWHs. Other related work evaluating HPWHs
热泵热水器(HPWH)是一种行之有效的方法，减少水加热能源的使用超过现行的电阻系统(ERWH)。这两种技术都可以增强对峰值负载降低的控制。使用CTA-2045标准在佛罗里达州中部进行了实验室测试，以评估连接热水器的负荷转移策略。来自三家制造商的四个hpwh，包括两个不同的油箱容量，与一个ERWH一起在类似车库的环境中进行了测试。测试的目的是将能源使用从公用事业高峰负荷时期转移到可再生能源过剩的非高峰时段。两种负载转移策略显示有效，棚和临界峰值，不同的制造商的变化。除了抽水量之外，其他因素也影响着HPWH的负荷转移:佛罗里达州的冬季条件增加了每次抽水量的能耗，为完成负荷转移提供了最大的挑战。进水温度对减载的成功与否有很大的影响。水管所在的地温很大程度上决定了进水温度。HPWH效率设置:热泵热水器通常默认为“混合”模式，可能会使用一些电阻热来最小化热水耗尽的风险。操作模式会影响负荷转移潜力。热泵热水器(HPWH)是一项已得到充分证明的技术，可显著减少电力消耗，以满足家庭热水需求。通过运行性能系数(COP)，美国各地的各种监测项目显示，与传统电阻储水式热水器相比，节省了50-70%的成本(Colon等人，2016;Shapiro and Puttagunta 2016;Willem, Lin, and Lekov 2017)。在过去的十年中，系统通过改进压缩机和其他设计增强，显示出更高的运行cop。(Willem, Lin, and Lekov 2017)。除了节约水、加热和电力的能力之外，HPWHs还可以减少高峰需求。东南部的许多大型公用事业供应商已经有了需求响应和负荷管理计划(Butzbaugh和Winiarski 2020)，如果证明能够提供卓越的负荷控制，可能会发现推广能够转移负荷的并网HPWHs的价值。这不仅可以被认为是控制公用事业同步峰值负荷的能力，而且还可以以显着的方式改变水加热电力需求剖面(例如，改变电力负荷剖面形状以消耗更多的白天公用事业规模可再生能源)。目前可购买的HPWHs和一些ERWHs与CTA-2045- a协议(ANSI/CTA 2018)兼容。该协议展示了西北地区电力需求的灵活性，为公用事业公司提供了控制设备何时从电网获取电力的能力(Metzger et al. 2018)。Carew等人(2018)对HPWHs的负载转移进行了详细的模拟研究。其他评估HPWHs的相关工作是围绕加州Title 24标准制定进行的(Hendron et al. 2020)。一项多户负荷转移HPWH研究完成了详细的建模，显示了更高的年千瓦时使用量(11-18%)，但在北加州气候的现场监测研究中，峰值能源平均减少了68% (Hoeschele和Haile 2022)。然而，这是第一次进行全面实验室测试的评估。CTA-2045协议标准化了通信模块和“智能”设备之间的硬件接口，以及电力供应商与连接设备通信时使用的语言。制造商根据工程参数和水箱内的水温概况来确定热水器如何响应控制命令，因此在协议的实施中可能存在差异。免责声明作为对作者和研究人员的服务，我们提供了这个版本的已接受的手稿(AM)。在最终出版版本记录(VoR)之前，将对该手稿进行编辑、排版和审查。在制作和印前，可能会发现可能影响内容的错误，所有适用于期刊的法律免责声明也与这些版本有关。注1在UEF测试程序中，HPWHs的测试条件为67.5°F(19.7°C)干球空气温度(+/- 2.5°F(1.4°C))和50%相对湿度(+/- 2)，进水温度为58°F(14.4°C)(+/- 2°F(1.1°C))。
{"title":"Detailed evaluation of electric demand load shifting potential of heat pump water heaters in a hot humid climate","authors":"Karen Fenaughty, Danny S. Parker, Joshua Butzbaugh, Carlos Colon","doi":"10.1080/23744731.2023.2261808","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/23744731.2023.2261808","url":null,"abstract":"AbstractHeat pump water heaters (HPWH) are a proven method of reducing water heating energy use over prevailing electric resistance systems (ERWH). Both technologies lend themselves to enhanced control for peak load reduction. Laboratory tests were conducted in Central Florida using the CTA-2045 standard to evaluate load shifting strategies with connected water heaters. Four HPWHs from three manufacturers, including two different tank volumes were tested alongside an ERWH in a garage-like environment. Tests aimed to shift energy use away from utility peak load periods to off-peak times when excess renewable energy resources are available. Two load-shifting strategies were shown effective, Shed and Critical Peak, with variation by manufacturer. Beyond draw volume, other factors influenced HPWH load shifting:Florida winter conditions, which increase the energy used per draw, provided the greatest challenges to complete load shift. Inlet water temperature had a large impact on the success of load reduction. Ground temperatures in which water pipes were buried largely determined inlet water temperatures.HPWH efficiency setting: Heat pump water heaters often default to a “hybrid” mode that may use some electric resistance heat to minimize risk of running out of hot water. Operational mode can impact load shifting potential. BackgroundHeat pump water heaters (HPWH) are a well demonstrated technology to significantly reduce electricity consumption for meeting household hot water needs. A variety of monitored projects around the U.S. have shown savings of 50-70%, reflected by operational coefficient of performance (COP), relative to conventional electric resistance storage water heaters (Colon et al. 2016; Shapiro and Puttagunta 2016; Willem, Lin, and Lekov 2017). Within the last decade, systems have shown even higher operational COPs from improved compressors and other design enhancements. (Willem, Lin, and Lekov 2017).Beyond the ability to save water heating electricity, HPWHs can also cut peak demand. Many large utility providers in the southeast already have demand response and load management programs (Butzbaugh and Winiarski 2020) and may find value in promoting grid-connected HPWHs capable of load shifting if demonstrated to provide superior load control. This can be thought of as the ability to not only control utility-coincident peak loads, but also to alter the water heating electrical demand profile in a significant manner (e.g., alter electric load profile shape to consume a greater amount of daytime utility scale renewable energy). Current HPWHs and some ERWHs available for purchase are compatible with CTA-2045-A protocol (ANSI/CTA 2018). This protocol has demonstrated electric demand flexibility in the Northwest to provide a utility the ability to control when an appliance draws power from the grid (Metzger et al. 2018). And Carew et al (2018) have detailed simulation studies of load shifting with HPWHs. Other related work evaluating HPWHs ","PeriodicalId":21556,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology for the Built Environment","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135824018","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract:Over the last decade, the global fight against climate change through electrification has led to an increase in research on building heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems that utilize intelligent control algorithms to provide demand-side grid service while also maintaining the thermal comfort of building occupants. As the pivotal point between building electricity consumption and indoor thermal comfort, high-efficiency electrical vapor-compression heat pumps are at the center of these emerging studies, and various grid-interactive and occupant-comfort control algorithms have been developed for them. The impact of these algorithms on heat pump operation and performance when subjected to different weather conditions, building loads, and grid requests calls for investigation and verification via experimental testing with actual heat pumps integrated with real-time building and grid responses. This study introduces a Water-Source Heat Pump (WSHP) Hardware-in-The-Loop (HIL) Test Facility that is the first of its kind. This testbed utilizes a 2-ton variable speed water-to-air heat pump that is capable of interacting with a virtual environment currently comprised of an EnergyPlus (E+) building simulation, an agent-based occupant behavioral model, and a single U-tube ground-loop heat exchanger (GLHE) model. Detailed descriptions of the testbed’s physical design and operation, virtual environement, as well as their mutual communication is provided. An uncertainty analysis is also performed under manufacturer specified heating and cooling design conditions. This analysis shows that the total load across the WSHP’s demand side heat exchanger, i.e., the sum of its latent and sensible components, can be measured with a relative uncertainty of ± 10.4 % and ± 3.6 % in cooling and heating mode respectively. The WSHP’s coefficient of performance (COP) can be measured with relative uncertainties of ± 10.4 % in cooling mode, and ± 3.7% in heating mode. A preliminary 24-hour experimental demonstration is then performed utilizing the DOE prototype small commercial office building model in E+. The simulation takes place in Atlanta, GA on the date of 08/26/15 from 12:00 AM to 11:59 PM using TMY3 weather data. . The results from this demonstration show that over the course of this experiment the simulated outputs of zone dry-bulb temperature, zone humidity ratio, and WSHP inlet water temperature can be tracked by testbed emulators up to a root mean squared error (RMSE) of ± 0.27 °C, ± 0.376 g/kg, and ± 0.85 °C respectively. The WSHP’s dynamic behavioral characteristics and performance are also captured, and correspond well with the authors’ previous understanding of heat pump efficiency as a function of evaporator and condenser fluid inlet conditions respectively.Keywords: Water-Source Heat PumpHardware-in-the-LoopExperimentalDisclaimerAs a service to authors and researchers we are providing this version of an accepted manuscript (AM). Copye
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