The Tree of Life is central to evolutionary biology, yet resolving deep, recalcitrant phylogenetic relationships remains challenging due to complex processes such as incomplete lineage sorting (ILS), hybridization, and polyploidization. Although previous phylogenetic studies have advanced our understanding of Leguminosae (Fabaceae), a species-rich and ecologically diverse family, many deep relationships at the tribal and higher levels remain unresolved. Incorporating newly generated genome skimming data for 231 species with previously issued plastid genomic, mitochondrial genomic and transcriptomic data, we reconstructed a phylogeny of the family using whole plastomes, 39 mitochondrial genes, and 1559 low-copy nuclear genes, achieving dense taxonomic sampling across almost all recognized tribes and major unplaced lineages. Our results supported the monophyly of the six subfamilies and 49 recognized tribes, identified ten clades worthy of recognition as new tribes in subfamily Papilionoideae, and clarified many contentious relationships. However, nuclear-nuclear and cytonuclear conflicts persist at multiple nodes among trees inferred from different datasets and analytical methods. We proposed the most probable resolution for 22 contentious nodes by applying nuclear gene-tree quartet analysis with corroboration from support of nuclear Maximum Likelihood (ML) and ASTRAL trees. Our results indicate ILS significantly contributes to observed phylogenetic conflicts, while gene flow represents an additional and previously underappreciated factor that mainly contributes to cytonuclear conflicts, particularly along the branches of the Angylocalyceae + Dipterygeae + Amburaneae (ADA) clade and Wisterieae. These processes likely underlie recalcitrant phylogenetic relationships, such as those within the 50-kb inversion clade of Papilionoideae. Our study uses multiple data partitions and analytical methods to resolve contentious phylogenetic relationships in Leguminosae, resulting in a robust phylogenomic framework to guide further investigations in this economically important and exceptionally diverse family.
One puzzling feature of avian life histories is that individuals in many different lineages delay reproduction for several years after they finish growing. Intraspecific field studies suggest that various complex social environments-such as cooperative breeding groups, nesting colonies, and display leks-result in delayed reproduction because they require forms of sociosexual development that extend beyond physical maturation. Here, we formally propose this hypothesis and use a full suite of phylogenetic comparative methods to test it, analyzing the evolution of age at first reproduction (AFR) in females and males across 963 species of birds. Phylogenetic regressions support increased AFR in colonial females and males, cooperatively breeding males, and lekking males. Continuous Ornstein-Uhlenbeck models support distinct evolutionary regimes with increased AFR for all of cooperative, colonial, and lekking lineages. Discrete hidden state Markov models suggest a net increase in delayed reproduction for social lineages, even when accounting for hidden state heterogeneity and the potential reverse influence of AFR on sociality. Our results support the hypothesis that the evolution of sociality reshapes the dynamics of life history evolution in birds. Comparative analyses of even the most broadly generalizable characters, such as AFR, must reckon with unique, heterogeneous, historical events in the evolution of individual lineages.
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