Toxins最新文献

Mycotoxins are toxins produced by fungi that contaminate many key food crops as they grow in the field and during storage. Specific mycotoxins are produced by different fungi. Each type of fungus and mycotoxin have their own optimal temperatures and water activities for growth and production. The legislative limits for various mycotoxins in foodstuffs to protect human health vary between countries but all commodities have their levels evaluated based on the concentrations from one aggregated grain sample. This approach assumes that the variation in toxin levels is uniform and random without spatial trends. This study investigates the spatial distribution of four mycotoxins (aflatoxin, deoxynivalenol, fumonisin and zearalenone) in bins of clean and dirty corn when stored in an environmental cabinet for two months under different temperature and humidity conditions. The bins of clean and dirty corn each had 12 CO₂/humidity/temperature sensors installed in three layers, and samples were extracted for mycotoxin analysis from locations close to each sensor following storage. Using Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis H statistical tests, significant differences were found between mycotoxin levels attributable to the different environmental conditions and spatial locations of samples. Variations in aflatoxin and zearalenone concentrations were most pronounced for the range of temperature and humidity conditions chosen. By understanding the patterns of spatial variability in mycotoxin concentrations and identifying zones at high risk of contamination, as well as what conditions are favorable, targeted interventions could be implemented to reduce food waste. This work also has implications for how levels of mycotoxins in foodstuffs are sampled and measured.

Cordyceps militaris (CM), a well-known parasitic fungus that grows on the larvae of Lepidoptera, has a variety of pharmacological activities. However, little is known about its safe dosage for animals, including pigs. To explore its effect on intestinal health and evaluate its safe dosage, 30 weaned pigs were randomly allotted to five groups and fed with a basal diet supplemented with different doses of CM for 42 days. The results showed that CM supplementation at 100 mg/kg increased the average daily weight gain (ADG) and significantly decreased the ratio of feed intake to gain (F:G) in the weaned pigs (p < 0.05). However, CM supplementation at a higher dose (1000 to 4000 mg/kg) had no effect on growth performance. CM supplementation at 100 mg/kg also increased the digestibility of gross energy and increased the ratio of villus height to crypt depth (V/C) in the duodenum and ileum (p < 0.05). Moreover, CM supplementation at 100 mg/kg increased the activities of catalase (CAT) and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), but decreased the concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA) in serum (p < 0.05). Importantly, histopathological studies of tissues (e.g., heart, liver, kidney, spleen, lungs, pancreas, thymus, mesenteric lymph nodes, stomach, and small intestine), organ indexes, major hematological parameters, and serum biochemical parameters were not affected upon CM supplementation. These results suggest that CM may have the potential to act as a safe and effective supplement to improve the growth performance and intestinal health of weaned pigs.

Botulinum neurotoxin type-A (BoNT/A), which blocks quantal acetylcholine (ACh) release at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), has demonstrated its efficacy in the symptomatic treatment of blepharospasm. In 3.89% of patients treated for blepharospasm at Tenon Hospital, BoNT/A was no longer effective in relieving the patient's symptoms, and a partial upper myectomy of the Orbicularis oculi muscle was performed. We used surgical waste samples from 14 patients treated with repeated injections of either abobotulinumtoxinA (Dysport^®) or incobotulinumtoxinA (Xeomin^®). These muscle fragments were compared to others from 4 normal subjects, naïve of BoNT/A. The morphological study was performed blinded to the BoNT/A treatment and between treated and control samples. Neuromuscular specimens analyzed by confocal laser scanning microscopy, using fluorescent staining and immune-labeling of presynaptic proteins, revealed that the pattern of innervation (e.g., polyneuronal and convergent innervation), the muscle nicotinic ACh receptors (nAChRs), and the NMJs exhibited marked differences in BoNT/A-treated muscles (regardless of the toxin clinically used), with respect to controls. BoNT/A-treated junctions exhibited profuse polyneuronal innervation in which 2-6 axons innervated 74.84% of single muscle fibers, while 99.47% of control junctions were mono-innervated. Another new finding was the stable convergent innervation, in which several motor axons end onto the same endplate. Morphological signs of synapse elimination included the presence of retraction bulbs in axons and nerve terminals and a reduced extension of postsynaptic nAChRs. These outcomes suggest that synapse elimination is altered and raise questions on the origin and factors contributing to the plasticity changes observed and the functioning of NMJs.

Hydroxyanthracene derivatives (HADs) are plant substances produced by a variety of plant species, including different Aloe, Rheum, and Rhamnus species and Cassia senna. These plants are often used in food supplements to improve bowel function. However, recently, the European Commission prohibited a number of HADs due to toxicological concerns. These HADs included aloin (aloin A and aloin B), aloe-emodin, emodin, and danthron. Most of the currently available analytical methods are restricted to the analysis of only these compounds and do not include other HADs. In this view, a multi-analyte method could be useful for both regulatory analysis and dietary intake studies. To this end, such a method, employing liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and targeting 16 different HADs, was developed and validated in this study. Limits of quantification were in the range from 0.025 mg kg^-1 to 1 mg kg^-1. The recovery of the method was within the acceptable range of 80% to 120%, with the exception of physcion. Repeatability varied from 0.5% to 11.6%, and the range for within-laboratory reproducibility was from 3.4% to 16.3%. The expanded measurement uncertainty was below 50% for all HADs. Subsequently, 24 commercial samples of food supplements and herbal infusions sourced in Belgium were analyzed. The results indicated that although the industry put a great effort into minimizing the amount of aloin and danthron present in food supplements, more than half of the products still exceeded the maximum tolerated levels suggested for aloe-emodin and emodin.

Toxins from Conus snails are peptides characterized by a great structural and functional diversity. They have a high affinity for a wide range of membrane proteins such as ion channels, neurotransmitter transporters, and G protein-coupled receptors. Potassium ion channels are integral proteins of cell membranes that play vital roles in physiological processes in muscle and neuron cells, among others, and reports in the literature indicate that perturbation in their function (by mutations or ectopic expression) may result in the development and progression of different ailments in humans. This review aims to gather as much information as possible about Conus toxins (conotoxins) with an effect on potassium channels and/or currents, with a perspective of exploring the possibility of finding or developing a possible drug candidate from these toxins. The research indicates that, among the more than 900 species described for this genus, in only 14 species of the >100 studied to date have such toxins been found (classified according to the most specific evidence for each case), as follows: 17 toxins with activity on two groups of potassium channels (Kv and KCa), 4 toxins with activity on potassium currents, and 5 toxins that are thought to inhibit potassium channels by symptomatology and/or a high sequence similarity.

Clonus is characterized by involuntary, rhythmic, oscillatory muscle contractions, typically triggered by rapid muscle stretching and is frequently associated with spastic equinovarus foot (SEVF), where it may increase risk of falls and cause discomfort, pain, and sleep disorders. We hypothesize that selective diagnostic nerve block (DNB) of the tibial nerve motor branches can help identify which muscle is primarily responsible for clonus in patients with SEVF and provide useful information for botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT-A) treatment. This retrospective study explored which calf muscles contributed to clonus in 91 patients with SEFV after stroke (n = 31), multiple sclerosis (n = 21), and cerebral palsy (n = 39), using selective DNB. We found that SEVF-associated clonus was most commonly driven by the soleus muscle, followed by the gastrocnemius lateralis and medialis, tibialis posterior, and flexor digitorum longus, and that frequency differed according to SEVF etiology. Our data suggest that identifying the muscles involved in SEVF-associated clonus may aid clinicians in personalizing BoNT-A treatment to single patients. Also, the findings of this study suggest that applying a 'stroke model' to treating spasticity secondary to other etiologies may not always be appropriate.

A new method for simultaneous determination by liquid chromatography coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS/MS) of 14 paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (PSP), that is, Saxitoxin, Neosaxitoxin, Gonyautoxins and their respective variants, in bivalve molluscs, is herein described. The samples were extracted by acetic acid solution, then analysed by UHPLC coupled with a Q-Exactive Orbitrap Plus high resolution mass spectrometer, by electrospray ionization mode (ESI) with no further clean up step. The analysis was carried out by monitoring both the exact mass of the molecular precursor ion of each compound (in mass scan mode, resolution at 70,000 FWHM) and its respective fragmentation patterns (two product ions) with mass accuracy greater than 5 ppm. The analytical performance of the method was evaluated calculating trueness, as mean recoveries of each biotoxin, between 77.8% and 111.9%, a within-laboratory reproducibility (RSD_R) between 3.6% and 12.2%, the specificity, the linearity of detector response, and the ruggedness for slight changes The results of the validation study demonstrate this method fits for the purposes of the official control of PSP toxins in molluscs. The results of two years of monitoring in local mussel farms are also reported, showing that no significant concerns for food safety in the monitored productions.

Trigeminal neuralgia is a neuropathic pain syndrome responsive to botulinum toxin type A therapy. This review had the goal of analyzing the different studies published from 2002 to January 2024 to better define the techniques and the types of botulinum toxin type A used, the doses, the injection routes, and the different populations of trigeminal neuralgia patients treated. We considered only articles in which the therapy was administered to humans to treat trigeminal neuralgia. Case reports, case series, open-label, retrospective, and RCT studies were considered. The research was conducted on MEDLINE and the keywords included (trigeminal neuralgia) and (botulinum). Thirty-five articles were considered suitable for this review. Botulinum toxin type A was shown to be an effective therapy for TN pain in all the articles analyzed, albeit there is a lack of standardization in methods and outcomes. The techniques, the doses, and the injection approaches were very heterogeneous among the studies. Only two botulinum toxin type A formulations have been used in this setting: onabotulinumtoxinA and lanbotulinumtoxinA. There were 300 patients treated with onabotulinumtoxinA and 760 treated with lanbotulinumtoxinA overall (in 42 patients, the formulation was not specified). The distinction between etiological and clinical types of TN has been made by only a small portion of the studies. The main adverse event was transient facial asymmetry. Botulinum toxin type A is indeed a promising therapy that is clearly effective for trigeminal neuralgia. OnabotulinumtoxinA is the most common formulation used in Western countries; however, the meager sample of TN patients treated, and the lack of standardization are not sufficient for this therapy to be approved by the FDA or EMA. Indeed, more studies with standardized methods and larger samples are needed for this purpose.

Managing shoulder pain typically involves the use of acetaminophen or oral nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, but prolonged use of these medications can lead to dependence and various side effects. To overcome the dose dependency and side effects of these conventional drugs, animal venoms have begun to be utilized. Among them, bee venom stands out for its powerful anti-inflammatory properties, which help relieve pain and treat chronic inflammatory conditions. This review evaluates the efficacy and safety of bee venom acupuncture (BVA) for shoulder pain. In March 2024, we searched 11 databases: 5 international and 6 Korean databases. We identified 23 clinical studies on BVA for shoulder pain. The causes of shoulder pain were post-stroke pain (43.5%), rotator cuff syndrome (17.4%), and brachial plexus palsy (13.0%). The BVA concentration and dosage per session were 0.005-1.0 mg/mL and 0.01-2.0 mL, respectively. All included clinical studies reported positive effects on pain outcomes. This review suggests that BVA, which involves injecting bee venom into acupuncture points, may serve as a viable alternative for pain management. However, the level of evidence in the included studies was low and adverse effects were reported infrequently, indicating that further research is needed.

Freekeh is produced from roasted, immature wheat grains. It is very popular in Middle Eastern and North African nations. This study aimed to evaluate the occurrence of different types of mycotoxins, physical impurities, and microbiological contamination in local freekeh products. Lateral flow competitive immunochromatographic assay was used to evaluate the occurrence of mycotoxins. It was found that physical impurities for some tested products exceeded the permitted limit (>2% of straw and foreign grains). Moreover, our findings showed that total aerobic bacterial and fungal counts in Freekeh products varied from 1 to 4 logs and from 1.39 to 4.3 logs, respectively. The incidence ranges of aflatoxins and ochratoxin were 3.17-3.33 ppb and 4.63-8.17 ppb, respectively. The levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) and T2/HT2 (trichothecene T2 and deacetylated form HT2) were less than the limit of detection. More than 78% of Freekeh samples tested had aflatoxin and ochratoxin contents higher than the limit permitted by the European Commission (4 and 5 ppb). In conclusion, gaining knowledge about the quality, safety, and labeling of freekeh products can help increase their commercial potential. Further investigations are needed to evaluate the factors affecting contamination levels within the freekeh supply chain.