Toxins最新文献

Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin-1 (TSST-1) is produced by Staphylococcus aureus strains encoded by the tst gene. Toxic shock syndrome (TSS) is a severe disease caused by TSST-1 toxin and associated with staphylococcal food poisoning (SFP). The aim of the present review was to present data on the occurrence of S. aureus TSST-1 in foods published in various countries. PCR-based assays are most frequently used for the detection of S. aureus TSST-1 in foods. S. aureus TSST-1 is predominantly detected in foods of animal origin. The highest occurrence has been observed in mastitic ruminants' milk, indicating that mastitis is a risk of milk contamination with the pathogen. High occurrence rates of S. aureus TSST-1 have also been identified in raw milk and artisanal cheeses. Various occurrence levels have also been reported in beef, pork, lamb, and chicken meat. Low occurrence levels have also been reported for fish or other seafood products. The tst gene was also found in combination with other toxigenic genes in S. aureus TSST-1 isolates (e.g., MRSA or Panton-Valentine Leukocidin, PVL). Monitoring S. aureus TSST-1 in food is important for public health because food can be a vehicle for transmitting the antibiotic-resistant pathogen to humans.

We present the case of a Vipera ammodytes ammodytes (Vaa, nose-horned viper)-bitten patient with recurrent thrombocytopenia. A 53-year-old patient envenomated by Vaa experienced three episodes of venom-dependent thrombocytopenia (4, 57 and 11 × 10⁹/L), all of which we managed with antivenom Fab fragments. Despite these three severe episodes of thrombocytopenia within 24 h, platelet function remained intact, as demonstrated by normal thromboelastometry and aggregometry (96, 126, and 150 U) results after antivenom was administered and the platelet count normalized. Furthermore, flow cytometry showed only 0.3-1.7% expression of P-selectin on platelets, indicating that platelets did not activate but remained functional during and after thrombocytopenia. We assessed platelet function using rotational thromboelastometry, which evaluates the overall kinetics of hemostasis, including clot formation and stability. We performed aggregometry, which also reflects platelet function, only when the platelet count was within the normal range. Flow cytometry quantified P-selectin expression as a key marker of platelet activation. This case demonstrates that a component of Vaa venom can repeatedly induce venom-dependent thrombocytopenia, which is reversible by intervention, while platelet function remains intact.

Cyanobacterial blooms, which are increasingly exacerbated by eutrophication and climate change, pose threats to ecosystems and public health. This paper systematically reviews recent advances in microbial intervention strategies for controlling cyanobacterial blooms. Current approaches primarily comprise direct lysis methods, indirect suppression methods, and integrated strategies. Direct algicide methods rapidly lyse cyanobacterial cells and degrade toxins, although their application is constrained by environmental sensitivity and host specificity. Indirect approaches offer sustainable preventive strategies by inhibiting cyanobacterial growth, yet require careful environmental management. Integrated methods combine microbial strategies with other technologies, enhancing both the efficiency and ecological safety of managing cyanobacterial blooms. While microbial strategies demonstrate significant potential, practical implementation faces challenges, including environmental adaptability, ecological safety, and regulatory frameworks. Future research should focus on integrating synthetic biology, intelligent delivery systems, and multi-omics technologies to achieve more effective and environmentally friendly management of cyanobacterial blooms.

Recent advances in the understanding of facial anatomy have contributed significantly to the refinement of injection techniques for the treatment of dynamic forehead lines. A comprehensive assessment of eyebrow shape, position, and the aging process is essential, as the latter are closely linked to the functional balance between the frontalis muscle and the upper facial depressors. Optimal outcomes also depend on the accurate determination of dosage per injection point, injection depth, and strategic distribution of injection sites within the frontalis, which should be carefully considered and tailored to the individual's anatomical characteristics and therapeutic goals-whether the aim is neuromodulation for muscle activity reduction or intradermal application for skin quality enhancement. A round table discussion session among three experienced international dermatology experts in aesthetic botulinum toxin type A was performed during a MERZ LATAM-sponsored medical education session. Recent insights in facial anatomy, including the precise location and distribution of motor endplates, as well as the direction of muscular force vectors during contraction; aging processes; and interindividual variability in facial musculature and mimicry patterns are discussed, and the results are described herein. These factors play a critical role in customizing personalized injection strategies and improving aesthetic outcomes in the treatment of forehead lines.

Parasitoid wasp venoms represent highly specialized biochemical arsenals that evolved to manipulate host physiology and ensure successful development of the parasitoid offspring. However, the molecular targets and mechanisms underlying this complex host modulation remain poorly understood. To address this, we employed an AI-driven discovery pipeline, integrating the sequence-based predictor D-SCRIPT with the structural modeler AlphaFold3, to characterize LjSPI-1, a venom serpin from Liragathis javana. This computational workflow highlighted a previously unreported candidate partner-a host serine carboxypeptidase (Chr09G02510). Crucially, we detected a direct physical interaction between these two proteins through both in vitro pull-down and in vivo yeast two-hybrid assays, supporting this AI-prioritized interaction under experimental conditions. Our study identifies a high-priority molecular pairing and demonstrates the utility of an AI-guided strategy for uncovering candidate targets of venom proteins. In addition, guided by the predicted biochemical role of Chr09G02510, we propose several plausible physiological hypotheses linking this interaction to host peptide metabolism and immune modulation. These hypotheses serve as a conceptual basis for future mechanistic and toxicological investigations.

The preparation of an antibody to treat snake envenomation requires a large amount of snake venom. In China, only four types of anti-snake venom sera are clinically available, and the production and immunization strategies for clinically approved anti-snake venom sera still mainly rely on detoxified antigens, which is a mature technical route commonly adopted by domestic pharmaceutical enterprises. At present, researchers immunize animals with low doses of certain snake venom toxic components or prokaryotically expressed toxic components to reduce the amount of venom needed, and use prepared antisera for their specific investigation purposes. However, it is unclear if low-dose immunized antibody titers and toxin-neutralizing activities are consistent with those of high-dose detoxified crude venom immunized antibodies. In this study, we developed a method for the preparation of highly effective rabbit polyclonal antisera while saving a large amount of toxin. Rabbit polyclonal antisera prepared by low-dose natural α-bungarotoxin (α-BGT) had strong neutralizing effects on the toxin itself and achieved the same antibody titers as antisera prepared with high doses of detoxified α-BGT. Antigen of A maltose binding protein (MBP) fused with α-BGT (MBP-α-BGT) expressed in prokaryotes had low antibody titer and low neutralizing activity. This study provides an effective dosage selection guide and methods for the preparation of polyclonal antibodies and antiserum for investigation purposes.

Bacteria encode a broad range of survival and defence systems, including CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats)-Cas systems, restriction-modification systems, and toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems, which are involved in bacterial regulation and immunity. The traditional view holds that CRISPR-Cas systems and TA systems are two independent defense lines in prokaryotes. However, groundbreaking studies in recent years have revealed multi-level functional coupling between them. This review systematically elaborates on this mechanism, focusing on three types of TA systems that mediate the core correlation of CRISPR-Cas systems: CreTA maintains the evolutionary stability of CRISPR-Cas systems through an addiction mechanism; CreR enables self-regulation of CRISPR-Cas expression; and CrePA provides herd immunity by triggering abortive infection after the CRISPR-Cas system has been destroyed by Anti-CRISPRS protein. Additionally, we discuss the evolutionary homology between the type III toxin AbiF and the type VI CRISPR effector Cas13, offering a new perspective for understanding the origin of CRISPR-Cas systems. These findings not only reveal the functional coupling of prokaryotic defense systems but also provide a powerful theoretical framework and practical solutions for addressing stability challenges in CRISPR technology applications.

The interaction between gut microbiota dysbiosis and CKD progression via the "gut-kidney axis" is increasingly recognized. Gut-derived uremic toxins (e.g., indoxyl sulfate and p-cresyl sulfate) accumulate systemically, while beneficial metabolites like short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) decrease, contributing to inflammation, oxidative stress, and kidney fibrosis. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), including complex formulae, single herbs, and active ingredients, has long been used to manage CKD. Emerging evidence-primarily from animal studies-highlights its potential to alleviate the disease by modulating the gut microbiota. This review summarizes how TCM interventions re-establish gut microbial symbiosis by regulating microbial composition, reducing toxin load, and reinforcing intestinal barrier integrity, thereby ameliorating systemic inflammation and protecting kidney function. Targeting the gut microbiota represents a promising therapeutic frontier for CKD, and TCM offers a rich resource for developing novel microbiota-modulating strategies. However, future research must focus on validating molecular mechanisms, standardizing TCM preparations, and conducting rigorous clinical trials to facilitate clinical translation.

The year 2025 marks two significant milestones for aflatoxin research: 65 years since aflatoxin was first identified in 1960, and 50 years of focused research on preharvest aflatoxin contamination since it was first recognized in 1975. Studies in the 1970s revealed that A. flavus could infect crops like maize and produce aflatoxin in the field before harvest and made it possible to investigate the potential genetic resistance in crops to mitigate the issues. Tremendous efforts have been made to learn about the process and regulation of aflatoxin production along with interactions between A. flavus and host plants as influenced by environmental factors. This has allowed for the breeding of more resistant crops and investigations into the underlying genetic and genomic components of resistance mechanisms in crops like maize and peanut. However, despite decades of studies, many questions remain. One established "dogma" is that drought stress, especially when combined with high temperatures, is the single greatest contributing factor to preharvest aflatoxin contamination and is a perennial risk faced throughout the major agricultural production regions of the world. Although there are many reviews summarizing the decades' long wealth of information about A. flavus, aflatoxin biosynthesis, management and host plant resistance, there are few reports that put the spotlight on why aflatoxin contamination is exacerbated by drought stress, which places plants under severe physiological stress and weakens immune systems. Therefore, here we will focus on three major areas of research in maize: the "living embryo" theory and host resistance mechanisms, the "Key Largo hypothesis" and the causes of drought-exacerbated aflatoxin contamination, and recent advancements in CRISPR-based genome editing for enhancing drought tolerance and increasing plant immune responses. This will highlight key breakthroughs and future prospects for the continuing development of superior crop germplasm and cultivars and for mitigating aflatoxin contamination in food and feed supply chains.

Recent botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT/A) formulations have shifted towards the use of polysorbate 20 (PS20) and polysorbate 80 (PS80) as a non-human-derived excipient to enhance product stability. Polysorbates are a distinct class of synthetic non-ionic surfactants with high heterogeneity in chemical structure and properties. Accumulating mechanistic and clinical evidence suggests that they may trigger immunological reactions, including hypersensitivity and immunogenicity. Such risks are largely associated with their susceptibility to degradation via hydrolysis and oxidation, forming reactive byproducts that can interact with proteins and immune pathways. Despite these mechanistic insights, data on the association between polysorbate excipients and observed immune outcomes in practice is relatively sparse and excipient-related immunogenicity and hypersensitivity is often underrecognized in practice. This review provides a summary of polysorbate excipients in BoNT/A formulations, focusing on their chemical properties and degradation pathways, characterizing downstream immune effects and appraising available clinical data of polysorbate-containing BoNT/A formulations. Finally, we discuss potential risk mitigation strategies including process modifications that could prevent degradation, and consideration of alternative excipients, such as human serum albumin, that has been shown to be immunologically inert and has an established safety profile. By integrating chemical, mechanistic, and clinical perspectives, this review seeks to clarify the implications of polysorbate use in BoNT/A formulations and inform both clinical practice and future formulation strategies.