Pub Date : 2021-12-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0028
D. Perring
London’s later Roman defences were enhanced by a series of towers, or bastions, likely to have been built in association with military campaigns in Britain in the 360s. The revived walled city housed important institutions of Roman government, several of which were later described in the Notitia Dignitatum, and was renamed Augusta. This chapter reviews the archaeological evidence for the fourth century city set within its historical context. It also summarizes the uncertain evidence of London’s first Christian communities, and considers the extent to which new institutional arrangements gave rise to new forms of public architecture.
{"title":"Augusta (c. AD 350–80)","authors":"D. Perring","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0028","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0028","url":null,"abstract":"London’s later Roman defences were enhanced by a series of towers, or bastions, likely to have been built in association with military campaigns in Britain in the 360s. The revived walled city housed important institutions of Roman government, several of which were later described in the Notitia Dignitatum, and was renamed Augusta. This chapter reviews the archaeological evidence for the fourth century city set within its historical context. It also summarizes the uncertain evidence of London’s first Christian communities, and considers the extent to which new institutional arrangements gave rise to new forms of public architecture.","PeriodicalId":293911,"journal":{"name":"London in the Roman World","volume":"22 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114434761","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-12-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0021
D. Perring
This chapter describes how and why Antonine London came to be characterized by an architecture of domestic luxury. This was evidenced by large private houses laid out around several wings with porticoes, dining rooms, and heated private baths, and decorated with mosaic pavements and painted walls sometimes referencing Bacchic iconography. These designs materialized an educated paideia that drew on Hellenistic ideas, perhaps under the influence of the philosophies of the Second Sophistic. These ideas may have first found architectural expression in London in the Hadrianic period, but were more characteristic of the Antonine city. London’s wealth sustained a local demand for imported goods, whilst the waterfronts where these were landed were also busy at times of military campaigns. Several Romano-Celtic temples were built c. AD 165, including one dedicated to Mars Camulus. Imposing mausolea were built within walled cemeteries along the main road into town. These temples and tombs formed a monumental landscape adapted to the religious and funerary processions through the city.
{"title":"Antonine sophistication (c. AD 135–65)","authors":"D. Perring","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0021","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter describes how and why Antonine London came to be characterized by an architecture of domestic luxury. This was evidenced by large private houses laid out around several wings with porticoes, dining rooms, and heated private baths, and decorated with mosaic pavements and painted walls sometimes referencing Bacchic iconography. These designs materialized an educated paideia that drew on Hellenistic ideas, perhaps under the influence of the philosophies of the Second Sophistic. These ideas may have first found architectural expression in London in the Hadrianic period, but were more characteristic of the Antonine city. London’s wealth sustained a local demand for imported goods, whilst the waterfronts where these were landed were also busy at times of military campaigns. Several Romano-Celtic temples were built c. AD 165, including one dedicated to Mars Camulus. Imposing mausolea were built within walled cemeteries along the main road into town. These temples and tombs formed a monumental landscape adapted to the religious and funerary processions through the city.","PeriodicalId":293911,"journal":{"name":"London in the Roman World","volume":"17 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"117072917","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-12-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0016
D. Perring
A review of the contribution that the study of London makes to our understanding of the ancient economy. It explores the economic impact of the large-scale movement of goods and supplies required to support military advance, and to meet the expectations of the unusually large garrison stationed in Britain. The underwriting of these food supplies can be treated as an early form of military annona, sharing characteristics with arrangements made for the feeding of larger cities. It is argued that London’s economy and port, revolved around the needs of annona supply embracing military and civilian consumers. The infrastructure developed to support the annona stimulated a wider trade in luxury imports, best evidenced by the pottery carried to and through London (such as Samian and amphorae). This long-distance supply is the most archaeologically evident aspect of London’s Roman economy. The use of coin is another, and this chapter reviews the use of small change within London’s internal economy and local taxes. Coin-based market economies may not have penetrated far into the surrounding countryside, where subsistence and peasant farming was allowed to persist and rent and tax could be obtained through sharecropping and other ‘in kind’ arrangements.
{"title":"Economy and supply","authors":"D. Perring","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0016","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0016","url":null,"abstract":"A review of the contribution that the study of London makes to our understanding of the ancient economy. It explores the economic impact of the large-scale movement of goods and supplies required to support military advance, and to meet the expectations of the unusually large garrison stationed in Britain. The underwriting of these food supplies can be treated as an early form of military annona, sharing characteristics with arrangements made for the feeding of larger cities. It is argued that London’s economy and port, revolved around the needs of annona supply embracing military and civilian consumers. The infrastructure developed to support the annona stimulated a wider trade in luxury imports, best evidenced by the pottery carried to and through London (such as Samian and amphorae). This long-distance supply is the most archaeologically evident aspect of London’s Roman economy. The use of coin is another, and this chapter reviews the use of small change within London’s internal economy and local taxes. Coin-based market economies may not have penetrated far into the surrounding countryside, where subsistence and peasant farming was allowed to persist and rent and tax could be obtained through sharecropping and other ‘in kind’ arrangements.","PeriodicalId":293911,"journal":{"name":"London in the Roman World","volume":"2 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116872087","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-12-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0006
D. Perring
The archaeology of the first permanent settlement of London is described. New roads were laid out c. AD 48 leading to a site that may have served as a supply-base on the north bank of the Thames. This was set out following a grid-plan around a central area where the forum was later established. Various features illustrate the importance of the managed traffic of military supplies. The topographic, ritual, and political importance of the Thames crossing at London Bridge is stressed, and the evidence of foundation burials and deposits associated with the early layout of the settlement summarized.
{"title":"A supply-base (c. AD 43–52)","authors":"D. Perring","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0006","url":null,"abstract":"The archaeology of the first permanent settlement of London is described. New roads were laid out c. AD 48 leading to a site that may have served as a supply-base on the north bank of the Thames. This was set out following a grid-plan around a central area where the forum was later established. Various features illustrate the importance of the managed traffic of military supplies. The topographic, ritual, and political importance of the Thames crossing at London Bridge is stressed, and the evidence of foundation burials and deposits associated with the early layout of the settlement summarized.","PeriodicalId":293911,"journal":{"name":"London in the Roman World","volume":"8 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133278342","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-12-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0030
D. Perring
The desertion of Roman London around the end of the fourth century is contrasted with settlement continuity within its rural hinterland. The failure of the Roman administration resulted in the abandonment of most urban properties. Although some suburban villas may have suffered a similar fate, others saw continued occupation into the fifth century. The most compelling evidence for such continuity comes from the site of the likely villa at St Martin-in-the-Fields by Trafalgar Square. Other rural sites, some first occupied in the Iron Age, remained as focal points for later activities represented by sporadic finds of early Saxon material in Southwark and at sites along the Fleet valley. The contrast that these sites present with the evidence from the City suggests that the evacuation of the city had little immediate impact on the management of the surrounding rural landscape. Saxon settlement occurred at some remove from Roman retreat. Other suburban villas may have been abandoned, only to attract later church foundations because of their identity as late antique sites with potential Christian associations. London’s late Saxon revival was the consequence of later political choices.
{"title":"Fifth-century landscapes","authors":"D. Perring","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0030","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0030","url":null,"abstract":"The desertion of Roman London around the end of the fourth century is contrasted with settlement continuity within its rural hinterland. The failure of the Roman administration resulted in the abandonment of most urban properties. Although some suburban villas may have suffered a similar fate, others saw continued occupation into the fifth century. The most compelling evidence for such continuity comes from the site of the likely villa at St Martin-in-the-Fields by Trafalgar Square. Other rural sites, some first occupied in the Iron Age, remained as focal points for later activities represented by sporadic finds of early Saxon material in Southwark and at sites along the Fleet valley. The contrast that these sites present with the evidence from the City suggests that the evacuation of the city had little immediate impact on the management of the surrounding rural landscape. Saxon settlement occurred at some remove from Roman retreat. Other suburban villas may have been abandoned, only to attract later church foundations because of their identity as late antique sites with potential Christian associations. London’s late Saxon revival was the consequence of later political choices.","PeriodicalId":293911,"journal":{"name":"London in the Roman World","volume":"148 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130267400","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-12-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0019
D. Perring
London north of the river was burnt to the ground in a fire that evidence suggests took place c. AD 125–6, with rebuilding underway c. AD 127–8. The evidence for the extent and date of this fire is summarized. The nature of the evidence, and parallels that can be drawn with London’s Boudican destruction, allows it to be suggested that London was deliberately burnt as an act of war. Historical sources hint at a major British war during Hadrian’s reign, although these leave us uncertain as to where and when it took place. The evidence of London’s destruction adds important new evidence to aid our interpretation of these sources. Following London’s destruction a new fort was built on the northern margins of town, the adjacent amphitheatre was rebuilt in stone, the harbour was rebuilt, and a new urban district laid out in the upper Walbrook valley. The architecture of these new building works is described.
{"title":"The Hadrianic fire (c. AD 125–35)","authors":"D. Perring","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0019","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0019","url":null,"abstract":"London north of the river was burnt to the ground in a fire that evidence suggests took place c. AD 125–6, with rebuilding underway c. AD 127–8. The evidence for the extent and date of this fire is summarized. The nature of the evidence, and parallels that can be drawn with London’s Boudican destruction, allows it to be suggested that London was deliberately burnt as an act of war. Historical sources hint at a major British war during Hadrian’s reign, although these leave us uncertain as to where and when it took place. The evidence of London’s destruction adds important new evidence to aid our interpretation of these sources. Following London’s destruction a new fort was built on the northern margins of town, the adjacent amphitheatre was rebuilt in stone, the harbour was rebuilt, and a new urban district laid out in the upper Walbrook valley. The architecture of these new building works is described.","PeriodicalId":293911,"journal":{"name":"London in the Roman World","volume":"87 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132115190","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-12-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0002
D. Perring
This chapter presents a short history of relevant archaeological research in London. It traces a long story of discovery that was born of seventeenth-century antiquarianism, stimulated by opportunities for discovery in rescue archaeology during Victorian rebuilding in the City of London, and came to maturity in England’s post-war development-led urban archaeology. This historiographic review explains how archaeological research has been organized in London, and how opportunities for study are a product of programmes of urban regeneration. The complex dialogue between archaeologists and developers has made a major contribution to the study and management of historic urban landscapes. It is explained that many hundreds of archaeological excavations have taken place in London over the last 400 years, but that many of the more important results remain relatively inaccessible.
{"title":"Recovering Roman London","authors":"D. Perring","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0002","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter presents a short history of relevant archaeological research in London. It traces a long story of discovery that was born of seventeenth-century antiquarianism, stimulated by opportunities for discovery in rescue archaeology during Victorian rebuilding in the City of London, and came to maturity in England’s post-war development-led urban archaeology. This historiographic review explains how archaeological research has been organized in London, and how opportunities for study are a product of programmes of urban regeneration. The complex dialogue between archaeologists and developers has made a major contribution to the study and management of historic urban landscapes. It is explained that many hundreds of archaeological excavations have taken place in London over the last 400 years, but that many of the more important results remain relatively inaccessible.","PeriodicalId":293911,"journal":{"name":"London in the Roman World","volume":"29 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127698581","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-12-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0031
D. Perring
This short section reasserts and summarizes some of the key conclusions to the book, explaining how London responded to the strategic choices of Roman emperors and governors, initially as a gateway emporium and subsequently as a defended administrative enclave. Episodes of systematic change were also provoked by exogenous shock, and the effects of war and plague can be identified in the archaeological record from London. Imperial inputs helped London to recover from such events, but the city was wholly a creature of Rome and otherwise lacking in social capital. Its eventual failure was a direct product of the failure of the Roman administration. Some directions for future research are considered.
{"title":"Afterword","authors":"D. Perring","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0031","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0031","url":null,"abstract":"This short section reasserts and summarizes some of the key conclusions to the book, explaining how London responded to the strategic choices of Roman emperors and governors, initially as a gateway emporium and subsequently as a defended administrative enclave. Episodes of systematic change were also provoked by exogenous shock, and the effects of war and plague can be identified in the archaeological record from London. Imperial inputs helped London to recover from such events, but the city was wholly a creature of Rome and otherwise lacking in social capital. Its eventual failure was a direct product of the failure of the Roman administration. Some directions for future research are considered.","PeriodicalId":293911,"journal":{"name":"London in the Roman World","volume":"40 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124411685","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-12-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0014
D. Perring
The Roman roads radiating from London attracted a series of roadside settlements, suitably distanced to have been stopping points after a day’s slow travel by ox-drawn cart and for cattle drovers. These were also places from which local estates might have been managed and where taxes could be raised at the intersection between urban and rural economies. Whilst the outlines of this road system and settlement network were Claudio-Neronian in origin, it was significantly enhanced in the Flavian period. Several important suburban villas were also established along the banks of the Thames at this time, although the wider landscape contains surprisingly few Roman villas. This was perhaps because of the relative unimportance of local land-ownership to the formation of power within the early town.
{"title":"The urban hinterland","authors":"D. Perring","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0014","url":null,"abstract":"The Roman roads radiating from London attracted a series of roadside settlements, suitably distanced to have been stopping points after a day’s slow travel by ox-drawn cart and for cattle drovers. These were also places from which local estates might have been managed and where taxes could be raised at the intersection between urban and rural economies. Whilst the outlines of this road system and settlement network were Claudio-Neronian in origin, it was significantly enhanced in the Flavian period. Several important suburban villas were also established along the banks of the Thames at this time, although the wider landscape contains surprisingly few Roman villas. This was perhaps because of the relative unimportance of local land-ownership to the formation of power within the early town.","PeriodicalId":293911,"journal":{"name":"London in the Roman World","volume":"17 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126178627","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-12-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0018
D. Perring
The social composition of Roman London is described from the evidence of written sources and archaeological finds. Burials, funerary monuments, and writing tablets identify an elite community dominated by the military and administrative establishments—surrounded by businessmen, merchants, and craftsmen—where slaves were an important presence. Many can be identified as immigrants, whose presence can also be read from the evidence of a DNA and isotope analysis. Most of these powerful foreigners wouldn’t have been citizens of London but incolae. Britons were not widely in evidence. Hybrid identities, varied patterns of consumption, and ritual and ceremonial performance are also described from the finds assemblages.
{"title":"People and society","authors":"D. Perring","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0018","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789000.003.0018","url":null,"abstract":"The social composition of Roman London is described from the evidence of written sources and archaeological finds. Burials, funerary monuments, and writing tablets identify an elite community dominated by the military and administrative establishments—surrounded by businessmen, merchants, and craftsmen—where slaves were an important presence. Many can be identified as immigrants, whose presence can also be read from the evidence of a DNA and isotope analysis. Most of these powerful foreigners wouldn’t have been citizens of London but incolae. Britons were not widely in evidence. Hybrid identities, varied patterns of consumption, and ritual and ceremonial performance are also described from the finds assemblages.","PeriodicalId":293911,"journal":{"name":"London in the Roman World","volume":"28 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121887433","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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