Wolfgang Eggert, Steffen Minter, M. Stephan, Handirk von Ungern‐Sternberg
In a two-period standard law-enforcement model, individuals observe or break the law. In addition, individuals may offend accidentally. When sanctions are limited by individual wealth constraints, the government chooses appropriate sanctions for first and repeat offenders and the level of monitoring. We assume a welfare-oriented government and derive subgame-perfect equilibria for constant, increasing and decreasing sanctions depending on the individual wealth level.
{"title":"Sanctions for Repeat Offenders: A Question of Wealth?","authors":"Wolfgang Eggert, Steffen Minter, M. Stephan, Handirk von Ungern‐Sternberg","doi":"10.1111/sjpe.12126","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/sjpe.12126","url":null,"abstract":"In a two-period standard law-enforcement model, individuals observe or break the law. In addition, individuals may offend accidentally. When sanctions are limited by individual wealth constraints, the government chooses appropriate sanctions for first and repeat offenders and the level of monitoring. We assume a welfare-oriented government and derive subgame-perfect equilibria for constant, increasing and decreasing sanctions depending on the individual wealth level.","PeriodicalId":341058,"journal":{"name":"ERN: Primary Taxonomy (Topic)","volume":"37 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2017-04-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122944141","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This paper identifies the individual components of social harm associated with a hypothetical racially targeted police encounter. Individuals who believe they are being targeted by police because they are members of a racial minority may suffer from fear of physical harm and humiliation by the encounter itself. However, the very fact that individuals will be racially targeted for a police encounter also causes harm to other members of the minority group even if they are not directly subject to an unwarranted encounter. In addition to fear and anxiety over the risk of such an encounter, they will often undertake costly avoidance behaviors to reduce their risk, or to mitigate the risk of any harm if such an encounter occurs. In addition, other members of society who value a nondiscriminatory policing policy might be willing to pay to reduce such unwarranted police encounters, and hence suffer a loss from this policing policy. In addition to discussing possible methodologies for estimating these cost components, this paper raises several issues that must be resolved – such as how to deal with the difference between perceived and actual racially targeted police encounters.
{"title":"The Social Cost of a Racially Targeted Police Encounter","authors":"M. Cohen","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.3015035","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3015035","url":null,"abstract":"This paper identifies the individual components of social harm associated with a hypothetical racially targeted police encounter. Individuals who believe they are being targeted by police because they are members of a racial minority may suffer from fear of physical harm and humiliation by the encounter itself. However, the very fact that individuals will be racially targeted for a police encounter also causes harm to other members of the minority group even if they are not directly subject to an unwarranted encounter. In addition to fear and anxiety over the risk of such an encounter, they will often undertake costly avoidance behaviors to reduce their risk, or to mitigate the risk of any harm if such an encounter occurs. In addition, other members of society who value a nondiscriminatory policing policy might be willing to pay to reduce such unwarranted police encounters, and hence suffer a loss from this policing policy. In addition to discussing possible methodologies for estimating these cost components, this paper raises several issues that must be resolved – such as how to deal with the difference between perceived and actual racially targeted police encounters.","PeriodicalId":341058,"journal":{"name":"ERN: Primary Taxonomy (Topic)","volume":"29 2 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2017-03-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124381918","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2017-03-30DOI: 10.9770/JSSI.2017.6.3(14)
Vyacheslav V. Volchik, E. Maslyukova
Reforming higher education and science in the world is associated with the widespread introduction of the indicators aimed at promoting their sustainability, productivity, and efficiency. The introduction of new educational technologies and the development of networks in education allow us to speak about the effect of increasing returns and mostly positive feedback. The instability inherent in such processes is an important factor for institutional change. Higher education and the professions associated with it, become large-scaled, which determines the use of indicators in the management plan. Exogenously introduced target indicators of development negatively affect the existing academic freedom and values, as well as hinder their reproduction. This paper attempts to understand the limitations of quantitative indicators and their impact on the adaptive strategies of the actors achieving them. We think that it is necessary to pay more attention to the problems of academic culture and values as important factors in both economic and social performance. It should be considered that education as a specific type of activity and institution is associated with the production of public goods and trust, and performs an important social function. We scrutinize the system of higher education through the prism of applying development target indicators as a tool of public policy. Our results seem to justify the importance of integrating institutions, values and self-governance mechanisms that promote long-term sustainable development.
{"title":"Performance and Sustainability of Higher Education: Key Indicators versus Academic Values","authors":"Vyacheslav V. Volchik, E. Maslyukova","doi":"10.9770/JSSI.2017.6.3(14)","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9770/JSSI.2017.6.3(14)","url":null,"abstract":"Reforming higher education and science in the world is associated with the widespread introduction of the indicators aimed at promoting their sustainability, productivity, and efficiency. The introduction of new educational technologies and the development of networks in education allow us to speak about the effect of increasing returns and mostly positive feedback. The instability inherent in such processes is an important factor for institutional change. Higher education and the professions associated with it, become large-scaled, which determines the use of indicators in the management plan. Exogenously introduced target indicators of development negatively affect the existing academic freedom and values, as well as hinder their reproduction. \u0000This paper attempts to understand the limitations of quantitative indicators and their impact on the adaptive strategies of the actors achieving them. We think that it is necessary to pay more attention to the problems of academic culture and values as important factors in both economic and social performance. It should be considered that education as a specific type of activity and institution is associated with the production of public goods and trust, and performs an important social function. We scrutinize the system of higher education through the prism of applying development target indicators as a tool of public policy. Our results seem to justify the importance of integrating institutions, values and self-governance mechanisms that promote long-term sustainable development.","PeriodicalId":341058,"journal":{"name":"ERN: Primary Taxonomy (Topic)","volume":"50 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2017-03-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122235245","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Yes, from an energy-saving perspective. No, once we factor in the negative output and productivity adoption effects. These are the main conclusions we reach by conducting the first large-scale study on cogeneration technology adoption – a prominent form of energy-saving investments – in the U.S. manufacturing sector, using a sample that runs from 1982 to 2010 and drawing on multiple data sources from the U.S. Census Bureau and the U.S. Energy Information Administration. We first show through a series of event studies that no differential trends exist in energy consumption nor production activities between adopters and never-adopters prior to the adoption event. We then compute a distribution of realized returns to energy savings, using accounting methods and regression methods, based on our difference-in-difference estimator. We find that (1) significant heterogeneity exists in returns; (2) unlike previous studies in the residential sector, the realized and projected returns to energy savings are roughly consistent in the industrial sector, for both private and social returns; (3) however, cogeneration adoption decreases manufacturing output and productivity persistently for at least the next 7-10 years, relative to the control group. Our IV strategies also show sizable decline in TFP post adoption.
{"title":"Industrial Investments in Energy Efficiency: A Good Idea?","authors":"Mary Jialin Li","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.2897003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2897003","url":null,"abstract":"Yes, from an energy-saving perspective. No, once we factor in the negative output and productivity adoption effects. These are the main conclusions we reach by conducting the first large-scale study on cogeneration technology adoption – a prominent form of energy-saving investments – in the U.S. manufacturing sector, using a sample that runs from 1982 to 2010 and drawing on multiple data sources from the U.S. Census Bureau and the U.S. Energy Information Administration. We first show through a series of event studies that no differential trends exist in energy consumption nor production activities between adopters and never-adopters prior to the adoption event. We then compute a distribution of realized returns to energy savings, using accounting methods and regression methods, based on our difference-in-difference estimator. We find that (1) significant heterogeneity exists in returns; (2) unlike previous studies in the residential sector, the realized and projected returns to energy savings are roughly consistent in the industrial sector, for both private and social returns; (3) however, cogeneration adoption decreases manufacturing output and productivity persistently for at least the next 7-10 years, relative to the control group. Our IV strategies also show sizable decline in TFP post adoption.","PeriodicalId":341058,"journal":{"name":"ERN: Primary Taxonomy (Topic)","volume":"114 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2017-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133438088","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
N. Pindus, Thomas Kingsley, J. Biess, Diane K. Levy, J. Simington, Christopher Hayes
During the past two decades, although improvements have been made, the overcrowding and physical housing problems of American Indians and Alaska Natives (AIANs) living on reservations and other tribal areas remain strikingly more severe than those of other Americans. Particular circumstances of tribal areas — remoteness, lack of infrastructure, and complex legal and other constraints related to land ownership — make it extremely difficult to improve housing conditions in those areas, although it is important to point out that tribal area housing problems and the barriers to addressing them are much more challenging in some locations and regions of the country than in others. This main final report includes the principal findings and conclusions of the Assessment of American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian Housing Needs, a congressionally mandated study funded by HUD and carried out by the Urban Institute and its subcontractors, Econometrica, Inc.; NORC at the University of Chicago; and Support Services International, Inc.
{"title":"Housing Needs of American Indians and Alaska Natives in Tribal Areas: A Report from the Assessment of American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian Housing Needs: Executive Summary","authors":"N. Pindus, Thomas Kingsley, J. Biess, Diane K. Levy, J. Simington, Christopher Hayes","doi":"10.2139/SSRN.3055776","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/SSRN.3055776","url":null,"abstract":"During the past two decades, although improvements have been made, the overcrowding and physical housing problems of American Indians and Alaska Natives (AIANs) living on reservations and other tribal areas remain strikingly more severe than those of other Americans. Particular circumstances of tribal areas — remoteness, lack of infrastructure, and complex legal and other constraints related to land ownership — make it extremely difficult to improve housing conditions in those areas, although it is important to point out that tribal area housing problems and the barriers to addressing them are much more challenging in some locations and regions of the country than in others. \u0000This main final report includes the principal findings and conclusions of the Assessment of American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian Housing Needs, a congressionally mandated study funded by HUD and carried out by the Urban Institute and its subcontractors, Econometrica, Inc.; NORC at the University of Chicago; and Support Services International, Inc.","PeriodicalId":341058,"journal":{"name":"ERN: Primary Taxonomy (Topic)","volume":"4 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2017-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125556042","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
There is an ongoing heated debate about the usefulness of standardized testing in assessing students achievements. This paper presents new findings showing that both groups: critics and proponents of standardized testing are right. We show that standardized tests do a good job in determining which students have well developed problem solving and critical thinking skills, and which ones lack such skills. But within the group of highly skilled students standardized tests are harmful. Best students on average have worse standardized test scores. These conclusions are based on the results of a large experiment conducted among 4300 high school students in Kazakhstan. We compared student scores on standardized test used to determine which high school students are eligible for state grants financing university education, with the same students scores in specially designed test measuring such skills as problem solving, critical thinking and student IQ level. Then using a survey of a random sample of 182 students participating in the experiment we tested for other ways to determine student intellectual ability. We found that the number of books at home and the level of English as a foreign language are good predictors of student intellectual ability, which is consistent with findings in other countries. Therefore universities are advised to consider these characteristics during university entrance process.
{"title":"Does Standardized Testing Make Best High School Students Dumber?","authors":"Krzysztof Rybiński","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.2888796","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2888796","url":null,"abstract":"There is an ongoing heated debate about the usefulness of standardized testing in assessing students achievements. This paper presents new findings showing that both groups: critics and proponents of standardized testing are right. We show that standardized tests do a good job in determining which students have well developed problem solving and critical thinking skills, and which ones lack such skills. But within the group of highly skilled students standardized tests are harmful. Best students on average have worse standardized test scores. These conclusions are based on the results of a large experiment conducted among 4300 high school students in Kazakhstan. We compared student scores on standardized test used to determine which high school students are eligible for state grants financing university education, with the same students scores in specially designed test measuring such skills as problem solving, critical thinking and student IQ level. Then using a survey of a random sample of 182 students participating in the experiment we tested for other ways to determine student intellectual ability. We found that the number of books at home and the level of English as a foreign language are good predictors of student intellectual ability, which is consistent with findings in other countries. Therefore universities are advised to consider these characteristics during university entrance process.","PeriodicalId":341058,"journal":{"name":"ERN: Primary Taxonomy (Topic)","volume":"35 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-12-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114181380","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Apurba Sakti, I. Azevedo, E. Fuchs, Jeremy J. Michalek, K. Gallagher, J. Whitacre
There are a large number of accounts about rapidly declining costs of batteries with potentially transformative effects, but these accounts often are not based on detailed design and technical information. Using a method ideally suited for that purpose, we find that when experts are free to assume any battery pack design, a majority of the cost estimates are consistent with the ranges reported in the literature, although the range is notably large. However, we also find that 55% of relevant experts’ component-level cost projections are inconsistent with their total pack-level projections, and 55% of relevant experts’ elicited cost projections are inconsistent with the cost projections generated by putting their design- and process-level assumptions into our process-based cost model (PBCM). These results suggest a need for better understanding of the technical assumptions driving popular consensus regarding future costs. Approaches focusing on technological details first, followed by non-aggregated and systemic cost estimates while keeping the experts aware of any discrepancies, should they arise, may result in more accurate forecasts.
{"title":"Consistency and Robustness in Forecasting for Emerging Technologies: The Case of Li-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles","authors":"Apurba Sakti, I. Azevedo, E. Fuchs, Jeremy J. Michalek, K. Gallagher, J. Whitacre","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.2868386","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2868386","url":null,"abstract":"There are a large number of accounts about rapidly declining costs of batteries with potentially transformative effects, but these accounts often are not based on detailed design and technical information. Using a method ideally suited for that purpose, we find that when experts are free to assume any battery pack design, a majority of the cost estimates are consistent with the ranges reported in the literature, although the range is notably large. However, we also find that 55% of relevant experts’ component-level cost projections are inconsistent with their total pack-level projections, and 55% of relevant experts’ elicited cost projections are inconsistent with the cost projections generated by putting their design- and process-level assumptions into our process-based cost model (PBCM). These results suggest a need for better understanding of the technical assumptions driving popular consensus regarding future costs. Approaches focusing on technological details first, followed by non-aggregated and systemic cost estimates while keeping the experts aware of any discrepancies, should they arise, may result in more accurate forecasts. ","PeriodicalId":341058,"journal":{"name":"ERN: Primary Taxonomy (Topic)","volume":"76 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-11-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126245416","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the determinants of the increase in firms’ reporting of alternative pay measures in Pay for Performance disclosures and their role in subsequent Say on Pay approval. Design/methodology/approach This study explores the most common types of supplemental compensation disclosures used in Pay for Performance discussions using a hand-collected sample of S&P 500 proxy statements from 2012-2014. The sample compares key characteristics of firms reporting “pocketed” pay, “market-value” pay, and “peer comparison” percentile ranking pay compared to firms that do not use these alternatives. Findings Results suggest that firms use alternative pay measures in their Pay for Performance disclosures for different reasons. While “pocketed” pay reporters show characteristics of opportunistic disclosures and “peer comparison” reporters tend toward informative disclosure, there is often a significant positive impact of disclosing additional compensation information on Say on Pay approval when combating prior poor Say on Pay support. However, the effect seems most significant for peer comparisons, indicating the value of reporting comparative pay. Originality/value This study provides insights into the increasing use of alternative pay measures, and through these measures, identifies an additional mechanism of firms’ responses to Say on Pay votes. In addition, this study highlights the importance of standardized Pay for Performance disclosures to improve informativeness and comparability in financial reporting across firms. Finally, the study provides additional evidence of opportunistic disclosure by firms in order to preserve executive pay.
本文的目的是研究公司在绩效薪酬披露中报告替代薪酬措施的决定因素及其在随后的薪酬批准中所起的作用。本研究通过2012-2014年手工收集的标准普尔500指数委托书样本，探讨了绩效薪酬讨论中最常见的补充薪酬披露类型。该样本比较了报告“口袋”薪酬、“市场价值”薪酬和“同行比较”百分比薪酬的公司与不使用这些替代方案的公司的关键特征。研究结果表明，由于不同的原因，公司在其绩效薪酬披露中使用了替代薪酬措施。虽然“囊中羞涩”的薪酬记者表现出机会主义披露的特点，而“同行比较”的记者倾向于信息披露，但在与之前较差的薪酬支持作斗争时，披露额外的薪酬信息往往会产生显著的积极影响。然而，这种影响似乎在同行比较中最为显著，这表明报告比较薪酬的价值。独创性/价值本研究提供了对越来越多地使用替代薪酬措施的见解，并通过这些措施，确定了公司对Say on pay投票的反应的附加机制。此外，本研究强调了标准化绩效薪酬披露对于提高公司财务报告的信息性和可比性的重要性。最后，该研究还提供了额外的证据，证明公司为了保持高管薪酬而进行投机披露。
{"title":"Determinants of Disclosures of Alternative Pay Measures and Their Role in Say on Pay Approval","authors":"Brandy Hadley","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.2849325","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2849325","url":null,"abstract":"Purpose \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The purpose of this paper is to examine the determinants of the increase in firms’ reporting of alternative pay measures in Pay for Performance disclosures and their role in subsequent Say on Pay approval. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Design/methodology/approach \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000This study explores the most common types of supplemental compensation disclosures used in Pay for Performance discussions using a hand-collected sample of S&P 500 proxy statements from 2012-2014. The sample compares key characteristics of firms reporting “pocketed” pay, “market-value” pay, and “peer comparison” percentile ranking pay compared to firms that do not use these alternatives. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Findings \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Results suggest that firms use alternative pay measures in their Pay for Performance disclosures for different reasons. While “pocketed” pay reporters show characteristics of opportunistic disclosures and “peer comparison” reporters tend toward informative disclosure, there is often a significant positive impact of disclosing additional compensation information on Say on Pay approval when combating prior poor Say on Pay support. However, the effect seems most significant for peer comparisons, indicating the value of reporting comparative pay. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Originality/value \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000This study provides insights into the increasing use of alternative pay measures, and through these measures, identifies an additional mechanism of firms’ responses to Say on Pay votes. In addition, this study highlights the importance of standardized Pay for Performance disclosures to improve informativeness and comparability in financial reporting across firms. Finally, the study provides additional evidence of opportunistic disclosure by firms in order to preserve executive pay.","PeriodicalId":341058,"journal":{"name":"ERN: Primary Taxonomy (Topic)","volume":"22 17 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-10-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130502730","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
It is well understood that political participation is stratified by socio-economic characteristics. Yet it is an open question how this finding bears on the normative evaluation of the democratic process. In this paper we argue that the equality of opportunity (EOp) concept furnishes an attractive framework to answer this question. Drawing on the analytical tools developed by an expanding empirical literature on EOp we investigate to what extent political participation is determined by factors that lie beyond individual control (circumstances) and thus is unfairly distributed. Using rich panel data from the US, we find that a lack of political opportunity is particularly pronounced for contacts with offcials, participation in rallies and marches, and membership in political organizations. These opportunity shortages tend to complement each other across activities and persist over time. While family characteristics and psychological dispositions during childhood emanate as the strongest determinants, genetic variation is a small yet significant contributor to unequal political opportunities in the US.
{"title":"Beyond Equal Rights: Equality of Opportunity in Political Participation","authors":"P. Hufe, A. Peichl","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.2860079","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2860079","url":null,"abstract":"It is well understood that political participation is stratified by socio-economic characteristics. Yet it is an open question how this finding bears on the normative evaluation of the democratic process. In this paper we argue that the equality of opportunity \u0000(EOp) concept furnishes an attractive framework to answer this question. Drawing on the analytical tools developed by an expanding empirical literature on EOp \u0000we investigate to what extent political participation is determined by factors that lie beyond individual control (circumstances) and thus is unfairly distributed. Using rich panel data from the US, we find that a lack of political opportunity is particularly pronounced for contacts with offcials, participation in rallies and marches, and membership \u0000in political organizations. These opportunity shortages tend to complement each other across activities and persist over time. While family characteristics and psychological dispositions during childhood emanate as the strongest determinants, \u0000genetic variation is a small yet significant contributor to unequal political opportunities \u0000in the US.","PeriodicalId":341058,"journal":{"name":"ERN: Primary Taxonomy (Topic)","volume":"246 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-10-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132027527","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Online marketers have widely adopted retargeting ads to convert customers who had previously browsed the websites or abandoned shopping carts. Yet, the effectiveness of such retargeting remains unclear. This study exploits several randomized field experiments to test how the effects of retargeting ads vary depending on the ad copy content and purchase funnel stages. The experimental results suggest that compared to the hold out without retargeting, the retargeting ads in lower funnel based on shopping cart abandonment history can engender significant incremental purchase responses. The effects are driven by the ad copy that highlights product return information rather than product reminder or shipping content. Due to the lack of touch, feel, and product trial of online orders, the ad copy with product returns can nudge customers to try the products with reduced online shopping risks and, thus, increase the purchase conversation rates. The net revenue for retargeting ads with product return information is about 49.7% larger than the conventional retargeting ads with production information. Also, a causal comparison with similar and randomly assigned customers suggests that the lower funnel retargeting is about 2.25 times as effective as the upper funnel retargeting in lifting purchase rates. These findings implicate that retargeting ads with customer services of product return information can effectively recover the shopping carts and boost sales revenues.
{"title":"Retargeting Ads for Shopping Cart Recovery: Evidence from Online Field Experiments","authors":"Takeshi Moriguchi, Guiyang Xiong, Xueming Luo","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.2847631","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2847631","url":null,"abstract":"Online marketers have widely adopted retargeting ads to convert customers who had previously browsed the websites or abandoned shopping carts. Yet, the effectiveness of such retargeting remains unclear. This study exploits several randomized field experiments to test how the effects of retargeting ads vary depending on the ad copy content and purchase funnel stages. The experimental results suggest that compared to the hold out without retargeting, the retargeting ads in lower funnel based on shopping cart abandonment history can engender significant incremental purchase responses. The effects are driven by the ad copy that highlights product return information rather than product reminder or shipping content. Due to the lack of touch, feel, and product trial of online orders, the ad copy with product returns can nudge customers to try the products with reduced online shopping risks and, thus, increase the purchase conversation rates. The net revenue for retargeting ads with product return information is about 49.7% larger than the conventional retargeting ads with production information. Also, a causal comparison with similar and randomly assigned customers suggests that the lower funnel retargeting is about 2.25 times as effective as the upper funnel retargeting in lifting purchase rates. These findings implicate that retargeting ads with customer services of product return information can effectively recover the shopping carts and boost sales revenues.","PeriodicalId":341058,"journal":{"name":"ERN: Primary Taxonomy (Topic)","volume":"69 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2016-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130029068","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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