Pub Date : 2022-01-02DOI: 10.1080/03071375.2021.2014689
G. Moore
ABSTRACT The costs of maintaining an urban street tree over its lifecycle have been considered in cost models. One used in Australia is a typical relationship between the cost and functional and aesthetic benefits of the urban shrub mass. But are these curves typical of larger, long-lived urban street trees growing under Australian conditions? The costs of maintaining an urban street tree under Australian management regimes, including purchase and planting costs of a common street tree species, herbicide and mulching costs, the cost of irrigation over the first summer after spring planting and of formatively pruning the young tree were calculated based on data obtained from Australian local government agencies. The research-modelled management of an urban tree under five scenarios based upon planting a 2–3 m tall tree with a safe useful life expectancy of 50 years. Scenarios included annual maintenance, regular pruning on a 5-year cycle after 15 years and a major arboricultural intervention in the final decade. The impact of longer lifespans of 100 or 150 years was also modelled. The curves demonstrated that costs associated with a street tree are high in the first 2–3 years of its life but much higher in the final year of life leading to removal but differed in shape from other models. The lifetime costs of maintaining a street tree depending on the management scenario are between AUD$2800 and AUD$6220 or AUD$56 and AUD$124.40 per annum. Doubling the lifespan of a street tree reduces the annual management cost by 30%.
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Pub Date : 2022-01-02DOI: 10.1080/03071375.2021.2022375
Gregory Adamson, D. Dowson
ABSTRACT Around 8% of the total land area in the UK is defined as urban, with around 83.4% of the total population living within these areas. In the UK, the management of woodlands and forests is governed by the UK Forestry Standard (UKFS), self-certified as the “ … reference standard for sustainable forest management in the UK”. However, the urban forest has no comparable national standard. With an increasing need to manage urban trees sustainably, a fit-for-purpose approach is required to promote sustainable, consistent and efficient urban tree population management. Generally, the approach to urban tree management is not cohesive and not related to any standard. Conversely, the principles of high forest silvicultural management are well publicised and adopted. Within forest management, an approach has been championed for its benefit to wildlife, commercial timber and ecosystem services; that of Continuous Cover Forestry (CCF). CCF is not a system, but instead, an approach used to attain set objectives (such as biodiversity and timber production). This research has shown a CCF approach can be directly applied to the urban forest. However, to successfully apply the principles, limitations must be overcome at national and local planning levels.
{"title":"Can principles of common high forest silvicultural systems be applied to managing trees that make up the UK urban forest?","authors":"Gregory Adamson, D. Dowson","doi":"10.1080/03071375.2021.2022375","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/03071375.2021.2022375","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Around 8% of the total land area in the UK is defined as urban, with around 83.4% of the total population living within these areas. In the UK, the management of woodlands and forests is governed by the UK Forestry Standard (UKFS), self-certified as the “ … reference standard for sustainable forest management in the UK”. However, the urban forest has no comparable national standard. With an increasing need to manage urban trees sustainably, a fit-for-purpose approach is required to promote sustainable, consistent and efficient urban tree population management. Generally, the approach to urban tree management is not cohesive and not related to any standard. Conversely, the principles of high forest silvicultural management are well publicised and adopted. Within forest management, an approach has been championed for its benefit to wildlife, commercial timber and ecosystem services; that of Continuous Cover Forestry (CCF). CCF is not a system, but instead, an approach used to attain set objectives (such as biodiversity and timber production). This research has shown a CCF approach can be directly applied to the urban forest. However, to successfully apply the principles, limitations must be overcome at national and local planning levels.","PeriodicalId":35799,"journal":{"name":"Arboricultural Journal","volume":"12 1","pages":"2 - 20"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87219132","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-02DOI: 10.1080/03071375.2021.2008710
I. Rotherham
As I write this editorial, with COP26 in Glasgow and a recent bold statement of how UK government policy is embracing trees, there is perhaps some glimmer of a hope of optimism. However, as it was once said, “Fine words butter no parsnips”; or in other words, “actions speak louder than words”. So we will see what comes of some of the fine words which we sincerely hope will prove to be more than hot air. With promises of mass tree-planting across Britain however, there must come some serious health warnings. The first of these is that container-grown saplings should not be in peat-based compost (whether of UK origin or from overseas). If they are peat-grown, then there is zero carbon benefit and maybe worse – because their cultivation has destroyed a peat bog and the peat is being oxidised into carbon dioxide. The Forestry Commission has already admitted to this environmental folly and I suspect some conservation organisations may need to look closer to home too. On the subject of planting trees, then this can bring enormous benefits if we have the “right tree, right place” mantra. However, there are other ways to grow yourself a forest or a wood, and my favoured approach is natural regeneration, and with a helping hand from our populations of jays. This bird is nature’s forester and will take acorns and plant them totally free of charge and in a far more natural way than people can. My good friend Ted Green is absolutely spot-on in this observation of how our native oakwoods originally spread. Old-fashioned foresters understood this and would put out bird-tables laden with acorns to be scavenged and planted. The final point is that you should never plant trees on existing areas of good wildlife habitat or on important archaeological sites. I have heard of both happening quite recently. Additionally, in assessing sites for new trees and for carbon capture, then we should consider less fashionable outcomes such as wood-pasture, i.e. open lands with trees spaced out, or even planting (or letting trees outgrow) in established hedgerows. There is also important research emerging to show how unimproved grasslands and heaths for example can hold huge amounts of carbon and compare well against plantations; and so such areas need protection not planting. This last issue of the journal for 2021 brings us three major contributions. Colin Price (2021) carries on his detailed analysis of CAVAT methodologies and approaches. This is part of an on-going discussion and debate centred on amenity tree valuation methods, and has great relevance to the calculation of compensation values for trees perhaps lost in developments, etc. Of course, with all such models, what you put in at the outset may be significantly subjective and that ultimately influences or even determines what comes out at the end. In the case of some amenity tree valuations, this may significantly and substantially under-value highly biodiverse 40-year-old spontaneous woodland in comparison to plan
{"title":"Editorial: trees, climate and the rest","authors":"I. Rotherham","doi":"10.1080/03071375.2021.2008710","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/03071375.2021.2008710","url":null,"abstract":"As I write this editorial, with COP26 in Glasgow and a recent bold statement of how UK government policy is embracing trees, there is perhaps some glimmer of a hope of optimism. However, as it was once said, “Fine words butter no parsnips”; or in other words, “actions speak louder than words”. So we will see what comes of some of the fine words which we sincerely hope will prove to be more than hot air. With promises of mass tree-planting across Britain however, there must come some serious health warnings. The first of these is that container-grown saplings should not be in peat-based compost (whether of UK origin or from overseas). If they are peat-grown, then there is zero carbon benefit and maybe worse – because their cultivation has destroyed a peat bog and the peat is being oxidised into carbon dioxide. The Forestry Commission has already admitted to this environmental folly and I suspect some conservation organisations may need to look closer to home too. On the subject of planting trees, then this can bring enormous benefits if we have the “right tree, right place” mantra. However, there are other ways to grow yourself a forest or a wood, and my favoured approach is natural regeneration, and with a helping hand from our populations of jays. This bird is nature’s forester and will take acorns and plant them totally free of charge and in a far more natural way than people can. My good friend Ted Green is absolutely spot-on in this observation of how our native oakwoods originally spread. Old-fashioned foresters understood this and would put out bird-tables laden with acorns to be scavenged and planted. The final point is that you should never plant trees on existing areas of good wildlife habitat or on important archaeological sites. I have heard of both happening quite recently. Additionally, in assessing sites for new trees and for carbon capture, then we should consider less fashionable outcomes such as wood-pasture, i.e. open lands with trees spaced out, or even planting (or letting trees outgrow) in established hedgerows. There is also important research emerging to show how unimproved grasslands and heaths for example can hold huge amounts of carbon and compare well against plantations; and so such areas need protection not planting. This last issue of the journal for 2021 brings us three major contributions. Colin Price (2021) carries on his detailed analysis of CAVAT methodologies and approaches. This is part of an on-going discussion and debate centred on amenity tree valuation methods, and has great relevance to the calculation of compensation values for trees perhaps lost in developments, etc. Of course, with all such models, what you put in at the outset may be significantly subjective and that ultimately influences or even determines what comes out at the end. In the case of some amenity tree valuations, this may significantly and substantially under-value highly biodiverse 40-year-old spontaneous woodland in comparison to plan","PeriodicalId":35799,"journal":{"name":"Arboricultural Journal","volume":"121 1","pages":"197 - 198"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-08-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"88258331","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-02DOI: 10.1080/03071375.2021.1929620
C. Mattheck, S. Fink, K. Bethge, K. Weber, I. Tesari
ABSTRACT Due to long and dry summers dead trees are a problem which is almost global in its occurrence. Here, based on field studies, a simple remedy is proposed that addresses the issues. This remedy is for trees already planted and includes a modification of the planting process. The key idea is a vertical borehole to be filled with a mix of gravel and biochar (Terra preta). These gravel poles in the ground are resistant to compaction by traffic-related vibrations. Furthermore, air, water and nutrients in the gravel-biochar mix serve to attract root growth. This approach draws the roots into deeper, moister soil layers where water can be taken up and thus they serve to enhance tree survival.
{"title":"A strategy to help trees suffering from drought","authors":"C. Mattheck, S. Fink, K. Bethge, K. Weber, I. Tesari","doi":"10.1080/03071375.2021.1929620","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/03071375.2021.1929620","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Due to long and dry summers dead trees are a problem which is almost global in its occurrence. Here, based on field studies, a simple remedy is proposed that addresses the issues. This remedy is for trees already planted and includes a modification of the planting process. The key idea is a vertical borehole to be filled with a mix of gravel and biochar (Terra preta). These gravel poles in the ground are resistant to compaction by traffic-related vibrations. Furthermore, air, water and nutrients in the gravel-biochar mix serve to attract root growth. This approach draws the roots into deeper, moister soil layers where water can be taken up and thus they serve to enhance tree survival.","PeriodicalId":35799,"journal":{"name":"Arboricultural Journal","volume":"7 1","pages":"249 - 253"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-08-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87057276","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-02DOI: 10.1080/03071375.2021.1903211
D. Slater
ABSTRACT Branch junctions are typically strengthened by the production of dense wood with a tortuous grain pattern in their axils (axillary wood). The strong association found between natural braces in trees and bark-included branch junctions set below them suggests there may be a causal relationship: that if a branch junction receives little mechanical stimulation due to being naturally braced, little or no axillary wood will be formed and bark is occluded instead. To investigate this relationship, sixty branch junctions in young specimens of aspen (Populus tremula L.) were braced with horticultural wire and their development contrasted with sixty “controls” where no bracing was applied. After three years, 95% of the braced branch junctions exhibited included bark, whereas only one control junction developed included bark and that was found to be natural braced. This is the first recorded instance where bark-included junctions have been knowingly created by artificial means. The results point to a causal relationship between natural bracing and the formation of bark-included junctions, which has implications for tree management. This study also provides evidence that axillary wood should be categorised as a reaction wood, as its formation requires specific mechanical stimulation, and due to its distinct anatomical and mechanical properties.
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Pub Date : 2021-07-18DOI: 10.1080/03071375.2021.1928448
C. Price
ABSTRACT The amenity tree valuation method CAVAT apparently gives reduced weight to future benefits, similarly to discounting. Discounting future conditions allows calculation of a value per year per square centimetre of tree basal area, on the premise that tree planting was rationally done. The resulting value ascribed to a target tree is much lower than that calculated by CAVAT. CAVAT’s value is the same as given by the “rational” procedure if trees were predicted not to grow. The “rational” perspective provides a reasoned estimate of CAVAT’s avowed objective of calculating a compensation replacement value for lost trees. CAVAT itself seemingly calculates over-generous compensation. The “rational” protocol’s apparently low value may be adjusted upwards to recognise incomplete planting survival, conditions of high cost, overheads and, sometimes, defective discounting. These, and any neglect of the value of subsequent replanting and of people’s particular associations with trees, may undervalue fair financial recompense, especially when no compensation planting is made. However, some of these factors would revise CAVAT values upwards too, so the gap between outcomes might remain. Neither protocol translates from a cost basis to a full amenity benefit of trees.
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Pub Date : 2021-07-14DOI: 10.1080/03071375.2021.1903239
Peter Sterken
ABSTRACT Wind-load estimations have been part of research on tree biomechanics and windthrow for several decades and are crucial for some safety assessment methods in commercial urban forestry and arboriculture. Examples of those methods are SIA, SIM, Finite Element Method, Dynatim and Arwilo. The goal of the present study was to see if an extremely simple mathematical model, based on stiff wind turbines, would be able to reproduce the results of some of those software packages. A model such as this, licence-free and at no cost, would be attractive to practitioners in their daily work. Simulation of, and comparison with, the commercial software was very satisfying. Agreement, with a correlation coefficient of 0.99, was almost perfect for more than 220 trees and a palm. Moreover, and as the correct interpretation of these methods is crucial, remarks are made too which can assist practitioners in their tree and palm risk assessments.
几十年来，风荷载估算一直是树木生物力学和风阻研究的一部分，对商业城市林业和树木栽培的一些安全评估方法至关重要。这些方法的例子有SIA, SIM, Finite Element Method, dynamic和Arwilo。目前研究的目的是看看一个基于刚性风力涡轮机的极其简单的数学模型是否能够重现其中一些软件包的结果。像这样的模式，免许可证和免费，将吸引从业人员在他们的日常工作。与商业软件进行了仿真比较，结果令人满意。相关系数为0.99，对220多棵树和一棵棕榈树来说，一致性几乎是完美的。此外，由于这些方法的正确解释是至关重要的，因此也提出了有助于从业者进行树木和棕榈树风险评估的评论。
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Pub Date : 2021-07-03DOI: 10.1080/03071375.2021.1970970
I. Rotherham
In managing trees in woods and forests, and especially in urban situations, then the history and heritage aspects are often problematic. Frequently important “heritage” trees especially ancient coppice stools and other “worked” trees, are overlooked or simply ignored. Indeed, whilst there are increasingly agreed criteria for recognising “ancient” and “veteran” trees that are either pollards or maiden standards, for many others such as upland “medusoid” trees and coppices in general, there is limited recognition and agreement. An important consequence of this situation is that trees may be lost in non-woodland developments because they lack protection or even in woodland management schemes because they are unrecognised. There are also subsidiary questions for woodland and other site managers when significant trees are found, as to whether to conserve (i.e. to preserve the status quo) or to intervene (i.e. manage). The latter may be a fraught process since attempting to reinstate management after a long lapse can result in a high fatality rate. Furthermore, being “damned if you do, and damned if you don’t” with pollards in particular leaving over-mature trees to grow into old age may trigger the tree becoming top-heavy and ultimately breaking up. With a veteran lapsed coppice, this is probably less of a problem, and it is best to leave well alone. A collapsed coppice stem may just trigger a new shoot springing up. There is a further matter that is often overlooked or ignored in that these former “working trees” (mostly now retired) are “eco-cultural” in nature. They result from long-term, predictable human-tree interactions, and as such, the “worked” tree that remains is itself heritage and archaeology. In determining our responses to such unique individuals, we need to consider the likely impacts of any interventions or indeed of non-intervention, on both the tree as a biological entity and on the biocultural heritage that the tree represents. In this context, the papers offered in the Arboricultural Journal (for example, Ritchie, Szuster, & Kaufman, 2021) help take the science and the debates forwards. Joining debates on ancient or veteran trees, on worked or working trees, there are also significant memorial specimens that may simply commemorate a place or those which were planted specifically to commemorate an event. Examples of the former are the “Parliament Oak” near Edwinstowe (see Rotherham, 2019) and the Great Oak of Pontfadog near Wrexham (see Rotherham, 2013) (though the latter has now been lost). The latter are exemplified by trees planted to commemorate say a royal visit, a significant date, or perhaps a military victory. How we recognise, assess, and if necessary, “value” such trees is as varied and challenging as the variety of heritage trees themselves. We certainly welcome further contributions on these themes in future issues. Heritage trees may be especially significant at the level of a region or a country. In this context, Bocs
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Pub Date : 2021-04-20DOI: 10.1080/03071375.2021.1908041
Vikki Bengtsson, C. Wheater, H. Read, Reg Harris
ABSTRACT Pruning techniques, used to conserve lapsed oak pollards, were assessed on 41 trees at Ashtead Common, Surrey. Tree response, between three and seven growing seasons after cutting, was compared with the cutting techniques used. The results provide some indications about the techniques that might maximise the success of working trees with this history of management in Southeast England and furthers our understanding of managing old oak pollards wherever they occur. When restoring lapsed oak pollards, choose trees that have good or high vitality, and that have lots of branches. Leave a few uncut branches when pruning and reduce the proportion of rip cuts used. Leaving stubs on oak does not seem to be as important as on lapsed beech pollards. If possible, cut branches less than 30 cm in diameter and with good epicormic growth. A flow chart is provided to help the decision process.
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