Pub Date : 2018-08-08DOI: 10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190610029.013.39
N. England
Training speakers of Mayan languages to be linguists is described over a forty-year period. Most Mayas who have participated in such training have been language activists as well, thus combining activism with being or becoming linguists. Three different phases in training are described, starting with extra-scholastic training in Guatemala before the civil war, its evolution after the war, and the shift to university training, especially graduate training, in the last fifteen years. The different components of the training programs are discussed, in particular how collaborations between a non-speaker linguist and speaker linguists developed and expanded. Linguistics training adds the analytical and scholarly aspects of language study to language activism, which is itself community based.
{"title":"Training Language Activists to Support Endangered Languages","authors":"N. England","doi":"10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190610029.013.39","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190610029.013.39","url":null,"abstract":"Training speakers of Mayan languages to be linguists is described over a forty-year period. Most Mayas who have participated in such training have been language activists as well, thus combining activism with being or becoming linguists. Three different phases in training are described, starting with extra-scholastic training in Guatemala before the civil war, its evolution after the war, and the shift to university training, especially graduate training, in the last fifteen years. The different components of the training programs are discussed, in particular how collaborations between a non-speaker linguist and speaker linguists developed and expanded. Linguistics training adds the analytical and scholarly aspects of language study to language activism, which is itself community based.","PeriodicalId":424278,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Endangered Languages","volume":"72 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-08-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133488070","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-08-08DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.38
Carol Genetti
Language documentation is a complex undertaking requiring varied technical and interpersonal skills, in addition to a strong foundation in linguistics. A full training program would include: immersion in the literature on language endangerment and language documentation; project planning; grant writing; preparation for the practical and psychological challenges of fieldwork; extensive discussion of a wide range of ethical issues; an understanding of factors that impact community decisions on orthographies; development of technical skills (e.g., audio-video recording, mastery of software, data management, archiving); phonetic and discourse transcription; the analysis, glossing, and translation of texts; grammar writing; and lexicography. There are many resources and models for providing such training, which can be embedded into the university curriculum (including field methods), offered at workshops or institutes, or taught in situ in apprenticeship or service-learning models.
{"title":"Teaching Linguists to Document Endangered Languages","authors":"Carol Genetti","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.38","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.38","url":null,"abstract":"Language documentation is a complex undertaking requiring varied technical and interpersonal skills, in addition to a strong foundation in linguistics. A full training program would include: immersion in the literature on language endangerment and language documentation; project planning; grant writing; preparation for the practical and psychological challenges of fieldwork; extensive discussion of a wide range of ethical issues; an understanding of factors that impact community decisions on orthographies; development of technical skills (e.g., audio-video recording, mastery of software, data management, archiving); phonetic and discourse transcription; the analysis, glossing, and translation of texts; grammar writing; and lexicography. There are many resources and models for providing such training, which can be embedded into the university curriculum (including field methods), offered at workshops or institutes, or taught in situ in apprenticeship or service-learning models.","PeriodicalId":424278,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Endangered Languages","volume":"11 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-08-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127823751","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-08-08DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.16
K. Rehg
Dictionaries play an essential role in documenting and conserving endangered languages. However, many such languages lack dictionaries, for a variety of reasons. A fundamental one is that relatively few linguists have had any training in lexicography. The purpose of this chapter, therefore, is to provide a preliminary guide to compiling a dictionary by envisioning that task as the production of a product. The creation of any successful product entails at least five steps—research, preliminary planning, design and construction, distribution, and support. Each of these steps is briefly discussed here, with an emphasis on dictionary design, described in terms of the dictionary’s macrostructure, microstructure, and megastructure. Legal and ethical issues are also briefly considered. The primary goal of this chapter is to urge researchers to undertake the creation of a dictionary, and to provide them with a conceptual framework to do so.
{"title":"Compiling Dictionaries of Endangered Languages","authors":"K. Rehg","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.16","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.16","url":null,"abstract":"Dictionaries play an essential role in documenting and conserving endangered languages. However, many such languages lack dictionaries, for a variety of reasons. A fundamental one is that relatively few linguists have had any training in lexicography. The purpose of this chapter, therefore, is to provide a preliminary guide to compiling a dictionary by envisioning that task as the production of a product. The creation of any successful product entails at least five steps—research, preliminary planning, design and construction, distribution, and support. Each of these steps is briefly discussed here, with an emphasis on dictionary design, described in terms of the dictionary’s macrostructure, microstructure, and megastructure. Legal and ethical issues are also briefly considered. The primary goal of this chapter is to urge researchers to undertake the creation of a dictionary, and to provide them with a conceptual framework to do so.","PeriodicalId":424278,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Endangered Languages","volume":"302 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-08-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134459110","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-08-08DOI: 10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190610029.013.22
L. Hinton
There are many paths language revitalization can take, but they are not mutually exclusive. A central aspect of language revitalization is the creation of new speakers. One path is for families to learn and transmit the endangered language at home. Schools are major venues for language learning. Language nests and immersion schools have been especially effective. Adult language education has also become a critical part of language revitalization. Universities and “bootstrap” methods such as the Master-Apprentice Program have been able to bring adults to high proficiency. Linguistic archives have been useful for access to language, especially when there are no speakers left. Modernization of the language is also unavoidable, including new vocabulary and the development of writing systems if necessary. Most importantly, language revitalization should involve increased use of the language, by native speakers and learners alike.
{"title":"Approaches to and Strategies for Language Revitalization","authors":"L. Hinton","doi":"10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190610029.013.22","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190610029.013.22","url":null,"abstract":"There are many paths language revitalization can take, but they are not mutually exclusive. A central aspect of language revitalization is the creation of new speakers. One path is for families to learn and transmit the endangered language at home. Schools are major venues for language learning. Language nests and immersion schools have been especially effective. Adult language education has also become a critical part of language revitalization. Universities and “bootstrap” methods such as the Master-Apprentice Program have been able to bring adults to high proficiency. Linguistic archives have been useful for access to language, especially when there are no speakers left. Modernization of the language is also unavoidable, including new vocabulary and the development of writing systems if necessary. Most importantly, language revitalization should involve increased use of the language, by native speakers and learners alike.","PeriodicalId":424278,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Endangered Languages","volume":"20 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-08-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129379338","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-08-08DOI: 10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190610029.013.11
Sarah Thomason
Language endangerment almost always involves language contact, but language contact does not always lead to endangerment: safe language contact features balanced bilingualism, and unsafe language contact features transitional bilingualism. In safe contact situations, neither of the languages in contact is likely to disappear unless and until the circumstances that make the situation safe change dramatically. In unsafe contact situations, by contrast, one of the languages is likely to disappear. Finally, attrition in endangered languages is compared with contact-induced change in non-endangered languages: individual changes do not differ significantly in the two processes, but only attrition leads to overall impoverishment of lexicon and structure.
{"title":"Language Contact and Language Endangerment","authors":"Sarah Thomason","doi":"10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190610029.013.11","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190610029.013.11","url":null,"abstract":"Language endangerment almost always involves language contact, but language contact does not always lead to endangerment: safe language contact features balanced bilingualism, and unsafe language contact features transitional bilingualism. In safe contact situations, neither of the languages in contact is likely to disappear unless and until the circumstances that make the situation safe change dramatically. In unsafe contact situations, by contrast, one of the languages is likely to disappear. Finally, attrition in endangered languages is compared with contact-induced change in non-endangered languages: individual changes do not differ significantly in the two processes, but only attrition leads to overall impoverishment of lexicon and structure.","PeriodicalId":424278,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Endangered Languages","volume":"42 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-08-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126517873","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-08-08DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.10
James Woodward
This chapter provides an introduction to endangered sign languages specifically designed for linguists who know little about sign languages but who may have an interest in the documentation of endangered sign languages. Focusing on ten Southeast Asian sign languages, nine of which are endangered or dying and six of which are being documented by fluent Culturally Deaf users trained through the Asian-Pacific Sign Linguistics Program in The Centre for Sign Linguistics and Deaf Studies at The Chinese University of Hong Kong, this chapter provides information about: the historical relationships of these sign languages, sign language phonology, “alphabetization” of signs by formational parameters, sign language morphology, sign language syntax, and sign language lexicons and lexicography. Finally, the chapter provides some discussion about the possible future of the documentation, conservation, and possible revitalization of endangered sign languages.
{"title":"Endangered Sign Languages","authors":"James Woodward","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.10","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.10","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter provides an introduction to endangered sign languages specifically designed for linguists who know little about sign languages but who may have an interest in the documentation of endangered sign languages. Focusing on ten Southeast Asian sign languages, nine of which are endangered or dying and six of which are being documented by fluent Culturally Deaf users trained through the Asian-Pacific Sign Linguistics Program in The Centre for Sign Linguistics and Deaf Studies at The Chinese University of Hong Kong, this chapter provides information about: the historical relationships of these sign languages, sign language phonology, “alphabetization” of signs by formational parameters, sign language morphology, sign language syntax, and sign language lexicons and lexicography. Finally, the chapter provides some discussion about the possible future of the documentation, conservation, and possible revitalization of endangered sign languages.","PeriodicalId":424278,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Endangered Languages","volume":"5 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-08-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134019638","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-08-08DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.29
B. Sands
Africa is home to almost a third of the world’s languages. Only about 400 of these languages are widely considered to be endangered but many more are vulnerable given the small populations who use them. Even minority languages spoken by fairly large populations face challenges. Language endangerment on the continent is widespread, affecting a majority of African languages, including ones spoken in small geographical areas as well as cross-border languages. While linguists have generally focused on documentation and revitalization of the most endangered languages, grassroots efforts have targeted both large and small languages. The success of language revitalization efforts remains to be seen as many of these programs are still in their infancy.
{"title":"Language Revitalization in Africa","authors":"B. Sands","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.29","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.29","url":null,"abstract":"Africa is home to almost a third of the world’s languages. Only about 400 of these languages are widely considered to be endangered but many more are vulnerable given the small populations who use them. Even minority languages spoken by fairly large populations face challenges. Language endangerment on the continent is widespread, affecting a majority of African languages, including ones spoken in small geographical areas as well as cross-border languages. While linguists have generally focused on documentation and revitalization of the most endangered languages, grassroots efforts have targeted both large and small languages. The success of language revitalization efforts remains to be seen as many of these programs are still in their infancy.","PeriodicalId":424278,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Endangered Languages","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-08-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133879865","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-08-08DOI: 10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190610029.013.24
Laura A. Buszard-Welcher
This chapter presents three technologies essential to enabling any language in the digital domain: language identifiers (ISO 639-3), Unicode (including fonts and keyboards), and the building of corpora to enable natural language processing. Just a few major languages of the world are well-enabled for use with electronically mediated communication. Another few hundred languages are arguably on their way to being well-enabled, if for market reasons alone. For all the remaining languages of the world, inclusion in the digital domain remains a distant possibility, and one that likely requires sustained interest, attention, and resources on the part of the language community itself. The good news is that the same technologies that enable the more widespread languages can also enable the less widespread, and even endangered ones, and bootstrapping is possible for all of them. The examples and resources described in this chapter can serve as inspiration and guidance in getting started.
{"title":"New Media for Endangered Languages","authors":"Laura A. Buszard-Welcher","doi":"10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190610029.013.24","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190610029.013.24","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter presents three technologies essential to enabling any language in the digital domain: language identifiers (ISO 639-3), Unicode (including fonts and keyboards), and the building of corpora to enable natural language processing. Just a few major languages of the world are well-enabled for use with electronically mediated communication. Another few hundred languages are arguably on their way to being well-enabled, if for market reasons alone. For all the remaining languages of the world, inclusion in the digital domain remains a distant possibility, and one that likely requires sustained interest, attention, and resources on the part of the language community itself. The good news is that the same technologies that enable the more widespread languages can also enable the less widespread, and even endangered ones, and bootstrapping is possible for all of them. The examples and resources described in this chapter can serve as inspiration and guidance in getting started.","PeriodicalId":424278,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Endangered Languages","volume":"12 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-08-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125512942","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-08-08DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.33
W. Mcclatchey
This chapter briefly addresses some of the issue and concerns about documentation and preservation of traditional and local knowledge about the environment and biodiversity, particularly as conceptualized within human languages. Parallels between the practices of biological science and language documentation are discussed as models for thinking about issues in language preservation. Language legacies are described as being both the details and the context of persistent use within communities of humans living in specific locations where their languages evolved. Local language complexities are largely based upon long-term interactions with, and observations of, local environments with resulting interpretations becoming important structural details of the language legacy. Non-local expertise in sciences (or other specialties) may be helpful for documenting local language details held by local experts that would otherwise be difficult for a linguist to understand. Collaboration between linguists and other scientists through incorporation of traditional and local knowledge about biodiversity will enable the collaborating scholars to increase the quality and relevance of their work for conservation of languages and life on earth.
{"title":"Traditional and Local Knowledge Systems as Language Legacies Critical for Conservation","authors":"W. Mcclatchey","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.33","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.33","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter briefly addresses some of the issue and concerns about documentation and preservation of traditional and local knowledge about the environment and biodiversity, particularly as conceptualized within human languages. Parallels between the practices of biological science and language documentation are discussed as models for thinking about issues in language preservation. Language legacies are described as being both the details and the context of persistent use within communities of humans living in specific locations where their languages evolved. Local language complexities are largely based upon long-term interactions with, and observations of, local environments with resulting interpretations becoming important structural details of the language legacy. Non-local expertise in sciences (or other specialties) may be helpful for documenting local language details held by local experts that would otherwise be difficult for a linguist to understand. Collaboration between linguists and other scientists through incorporation of traditional and local knowledge about biodiversity will enable the collaborating scholars to increase the quality and relevance of their work for conservation of languages and life on earth.","PeriodicalId":424278,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Endangered Languages","volume":"48 1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-08-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125927517","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-08-08DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.17
M. Cahill
One factor in maintaining an endangered language is literacy, and for this, a sound orthography is desirable. This chapter outlines the features of a good orthography for any unwritten language, and then focuses on factors specific to endangered languages in the context of two broad categories: usability and acceptability. Usability of a given orthography involves how well people can read it. Much of this depends on how well the orthography matches the linguistic system of the language, including the phoneme inventory, word breaks, etc. Acceptability involves how much people actually want to use the orthography. This involves a multitude of sociopolitical factors, often relating to a group’s perceived identity. An orthography for an endangered language, in addition to the above considerations, also mandates a closer examination of the desired purpose of the orthography, whether for use in practical literacy or more as a symbolic representation of the group’s identity.
{"title":"Orthography Design and Implementation for Endangered Languages","authors":"M. Cahill","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.17","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190610029.013.17","url":null,"abstract":"One factor in maintaining an endangered language is literacy, and for this, a sound orthography is desirable. This chapter outlines the features of a good orthography for any unwritten language, and then focuses on factors specific to endangered languages in the context of two broad categories: usability and acceptability. Usability of a given orthography involves how well people can read it. Much of this depends on how well the orthography matches the linguistic system of the language, including the phoneme inventory, word breaks, etc. Acceptability involves how much people actually want to use the orthography. This involves a multitude of sociopolitical factors, often relating to a group’s perceived identity. An orthography for an endangered language, in addition to the above considerations, also mandates a closer examination of the desired purpose of the orthography, whether for use in practical literacy or more as a symbolic representation of the group’s identity.","PeriodicalId":424278,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Endangered Languages","volume":"70 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-08-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131951132","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
京公网安备 11010802042870号
京ICP备2023020795号-1
扫码关注我们
求助内容：
应助结果提醒方式：