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An analysis of labor regulations for transportation network companies 交通运输网络公司劳动法规分析
IF 2.8 3区 工程技术 Q2 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecotra.2022.100284
Akhil Shetty , Sen Li , Hamidreza Tavafoghi , Junjie Qin , Kameshwar Poolla , Pravin Varaiya

There is a growing movement worldwide to regulate transportation network companies (TNCs) such as Uber and Lyft. This is driven by concerns over low driver wages. Two recent labor regulations that were passed in California are Assembly Bill 5 (AB5) and Proposition 22 (Prop 22). AB5 classifies drivers (and other gig-economy workers) as employees as opposed to contractors. The implication is that ride-hailing companies must pay drivers a minimum wage and associated benefits, and that the drivers work full-time. This negatively impacts the TNC business model in two ways: (a) wage effect: higher wages and benefits reduce profit margins significantly, and (b) flexibility effect: having a base of full time drivers reduces the ability of TNCs like Uber and Lyft to match driver supply to customer demand on a fine temporal scale. As an alternative, TNCs lobbied fiercely for Prop 22. This regulation offers drivers 120% of minimum wage, but only for driving hours spent servicing a trip (engaged time).

This paper studies the impacts of these and other possible regulations using data from the city of San Francisco. We develop a market-equilibrium model that captures passenger demand and driver supply in response to TNC’s pricing decisions. We show that the flexibility effect under AB5 can be largely mitigated by offering staggered driver shifts. The wage effect is substantial and undermines the viability of the TNC business model. We find that the wage effect leads to a 18% decrease in TNC profit, whereas the flexibility effect results in a profit reduction ranging between 1%–10% depending on how shifts are designed. On the other hand, Prop 22 will preserve TNC profitability, but the guaranteed engaged time wage promised by Prop 22 is insufficient to materially increase driver wages. We show that this concern cannot be addressed by further increasing the engaged time wage, as it will increase passenger fares, increase driver cruising time, reduce efficiency, and significantly reduce TNC profit. We then suggest suitable modifications to each of the above regulations that can improve outcomes for drivers and passengers without jeopardizing the TNC business model.

在世界范围内,监管优步和Lyft等交通网络公司(TNCs)的运动越来越多。这是由于对司机工资过低的担忧。加州最近通过了两项劳工法规,即第5号议会法案(AB5)和第22号提案(Prop 22)。AB5将司机(和其他零工经济工人)归类为雇员,而不是承包商。这意味着网约车公司必须向司机支付最低工资和相关福利,司机必须全职工作。这在两个方面对跨国公司的商业模式产生了负面影响:(a)工资效应:更高的工资和福利显著降低了利润率;(b)灵活性效应:拥有全职司机的基础,降低了Uber和Lyft等跨国公司在较短的时间尺度上匹配司机供应与客户需求的能力。作为替代方案,跨国公司为第22号提案进行了激烈的游说。这一规定为司机提供最低工资的120%,但仅限于为旅行服务的驾驶时间(参与时间)。本文利用旧金山市的数据研究了这些和其他可能的法规的影响。我们开发了一个市场均衡模型,根据跨国公司的定价决策捕捉乘客需求和司机供给。我们表明,AB5下的灵活性效应可以通过提供交错的驾驶员换挡来很大程度上缓解。工资的影响是巨大的,破坏了跨国公司商业模式的生存能力。我们发现,工资效应导致跨国公司利润减少18%,而灵活性效应导致利润减少1%-10%,这取决于班次的设计方式。另一方面,第22号提案将保留跨国公司的盈利能力,但第22号提案所承诺的保证工作时间工资不足以实质性提高司机工资。我们表明,这一问题不能通过进一步提高工作时间工资来解决,因为这将增加乘客票价,增加司机的巡航时间,降低效率,并显著减少跨国公司的利润。然后,我们建议对上述每项规定进行适当的修改,以改善司机和乘客的结果,而不会危及跨国公司的商业模式。
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引用次数: 2
What role for electric vehicles in the decarbonization of the car transport sector in Europe? 电动汽车在欧洲汽车运输部门的脱碳中扮演什么角色?
IF 2.8 3区 工程技术 Q2 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecotra.2022.100283
Christina Littlejohn , Stef Proost

The transport sector is the only sector where carbon emissions continue to grow. This has led policy makers to propose ambitious policies to reduce emissions in the car sector, in particular carbon emissions standards, portfolio mandates for Electric Vehicles and purchase taxes or subsidies. We use a stylized two-period model for the car manufacturing sector to compare the cost efficiency of these policies. The model has gasoline fueled cars (GV) compete with battery electric cars (EV). Both types of cars have endogenous technological progress that is triggered by environmental policies, including tradable carbon emissions standards, portfolio mandates, carbon taxes, purchase taxes and R&D subsidies. Parked EVs can serve as batteries that help grid operators to shift off peak (renewable) electricity to peak hour supply. The model is calibrated to evaluate the EU policy to reduce average carbon emissions of new cars by 37,5% in 2030 compared to 2021. We assess the cost-efficiency of policy instruments evaluating vehicle costs and prices, fuel costs, and externalities. We find that a carbon emissions standard achieves emission reductions at a much lower cost than a portfolio mandate for electric cars.

交通运输部门是唯一一个碳排放量持续增长的部门。这导致政策制定者提出了雄心勃勃的政策,以减少汽车行业的排放,特别是碳排放标准,电动汽车的组合授权以及购置税或补贴。我们对汽车制造业使用一个程式化的两期模型来比较这些政策的成本效率。该车型让汽油燃料汽车(GV)与纯电动汽车(EV)展开竞争。这两种类型的汽车都有内生的技术进步,这是由环境政策引发的,包括可交易的碳排放标准、组合授权、碳税、购置税和研发补贴。停放的电动汽车可以充当电池,帮助电网运营商将峰值(可再生)电力转移到高峰时段供应。该模型经过校准,以评估欧盟2030年新车平均碳排放量比2021年减少37.5%的政策。我们评估了评估车辆成本和价格、燃料成本和外部性的政策工具的成本效率。我们发现,与电动汽车的投资组合授权相比,碳排放标准实现减排的成本要低得多。
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引用次数: 0
I would if I could: Passing through VAT reductions in the german rail industry 如果可以的话,我会:通过德国铁路行业的增值税减免
IF 2.8 3区 工程技术 Q2 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecotra.2022.100286
Gernot Sieg, Jan Wessel

Germany’s state-owned train operator Deutsche Bahn made a credible pledge to completely pass through a VAT reduction to passengers. Using a price observation dataset, we find that pass-through rates for fixed-price tickets are indeed 100%, whereas pass-through rates for tickets with revenue-management-based prices can differ significantly from 100%. They vary over purchase-timing periods, departure weekdays, departure timeframes, and price levels, thereby indicating that revenue management systems can cause unequal pass-through to different customer groups. We also provide theoretical insights into the price-setting considerations of offering these two ticket types, and derive the monopoly pass-through rate for ad valorem taxes.

德国国有铁路运营商德国联邦铁路公司(Deutsche Bahn)做出了一个可信的承诺,将把增值税减免完全转嫁给乘客。使用价格观察数据集,我们发现固定价格门票的传递率确实是100%,而基于收入管理价格的门票的传递率可能与100%有很大差异。它们随购买时间、出发工作日、出发时间框架和价格水平而变化,因此表明收入管理系统可能导致不同客户群体的不平等传递。我们还对提供这两种票种的价格设定考虑因素提供了理论见解,并推导出从价税的垄断传递率。
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引用次数: 0
An integral interval timetable for long-distance passenger rail services: Time to reconsider targeting on-track competition 长途客运铁路服务的积分间隔时间表:是时候重新考虑瞄准轨道竞争了
IF 2.8 3区 工程技术 Q2 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecotra.2022.100285
Christina Brand, Gernot Sieg

In the course of introducing an integral interval timetable (IIT), it is possible to induce on-track competition. Regarding punctuality as an essential prerequisite for an IIT, we would not recommend doing so. Regarding overall welfare, the situation is less clear. We model both a route duopoly and a monopoly, and find that in the latter, trains are more punctual and fares are higher. This is because a monopolist is not exposed to intramodal price competition, which may be at the expense of quality in the form of punctuality. Furthermore, a monopolist has a fixed cost advantage when investing in punctuality. If the market is regulated in such a way that rail traffic is maximized, welfare is higher in a monopoly. If such regulation is not binding anyway, this result does not change without it. Otherwise, without regulation, welfare is higher in a monopoly if the lower delay costs overcompensate for the higher fare, so that more passengers travel by train, compared to a duopoly, or if the fact that in the monopoly, there are fewer passengers is overcompensated for by the higher monopoly profit.

在引入积分间隔赛制的过程中,引入赛道竞争是可能的。考虑到守时是IIT的基本先决条件,我们不建议这样做。就整体福利而言,情况就不那么明朗了。我们建立了线路双寡头和垄断的模型,发现后者的列车更准时,票价更高。这是因为垄断者不会受到模式内价格竞争的影响,这种竞争可能以牺牲准时性的质量为代价。此外,垄断者在投资准时性时具有固定成本优势。如果市场以这样一种方式进行监管,即铁路交通最大化,那么垄断中的福利更高。如果这样的规定无论如何都没有约束力,那么即使没有它,这个结果也不会改变。否则,在没有监管的情况下,如果较低的延误成本过度补偿了较高的票价,那么与双寡头垄断相比,更多的乘客乘坐火车出行,或者在垄断中,乘客较少的事实被较高的垄断利润过度补偿,那么垄断中的福利就会更高。
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引用次数: 0
Exploring the nonlinear impact of air pollution on housing prices: A machine learning approach 探索空气污染对房价的非线性影响:一种机器学习方法
IF 2.8 3区 工程技术 Q2 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecotra.2022.100272
Guojian Zou , Ziliang Lai , Ye Li , Xinghua Liu , Wenxiang Li

Air pollution has profoundly impacted residents’ lifestyles as well as their willingness to pay for real estate. Exploring the relationship between air pollution and housing prices has become increasingly prominent. Current research on housing prices mainly uses the hedonic pricing model and the spatial econometric model, which are both linear methods. However, it is difficult to use these methods to model the nonlinear relationship between housing price and its determinants. In addition, most of the existing studies neglect the effects of multiple pollutants on housing prices. To fill these gaps, this study uses a machine learning approach, the gradient boosting decision tree (GBDT) model to analyze the nonlinear impacts of air pollution and the built environment on housing prices in Shanghai. The experimental results show that the GBDT can better fit the nonlinear relationship between housing prices and various explanatory variables compared with traditional linear models. Furthermore, the relative importance rankings of the built environment and air pollution variables are analyzed based on the GBDT model. It indicates that built environment variables contribute 97.21% of the influences on housing prices, whereas the contribution of air pollution variables is 2.79%. Although the impact of air pollution is relatively small, the marginal willingness of residents to pay for clean air is significant. With an improvement of 1 μg/m3 in the average concentrations of PM2.5 and NO2, the average housing price increases by 155.93 Yuan/m2 and 278.03 Yuan/m2, respectively. Therefore, this study can improve our understanding of the nonlinear impact of air pollution on housing prices and provide a basis for formulating and revising policies related to housing prices.

空气污染严重影响了居民的生活方式,也影响了他们购买房地产的意愿。探索空气污染与房价之间的关系日益突出。目前对房价的研究主要采用享乐定价模型和空间计量模型,两者都是线性方法。然而,用这些方法来模拟房价及其决定因素之间的非线性关系是很困难的。此外,现有的研究大多忽略了多种污染物对房价的影响。为了填补这些空白,本研究使用机器学习方法、梯度增强决策树(GBDT)模型来分析空气污染和建筑环境对上海房价的非线性影响。实验结果表明,与传统的线性模型相比,GBDT可以更好地拟合房价与各种解释变量之间的非线性关系。基于GBDT模型,分析了建筑环境和大气污染变量的相对重要性排序。结果表明,建筑环境变量对房价的影响贡献率为97.21%,空气污染变量对房价的影响贡献率为2.79%。虽然空气污染的影响相对较小,但居民为清洁空气付费的边际意愿是显著的。PM2.5和NO2平均浓度每提高1 μg/m3,平均房价分别上涨155.93元/m2和278.03元/m2。因此,本研究可以提高我们对空气污染对房价的非线性影响的认识,并为制定和修订房价相关政策提供依据。
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引用次数: 4
The effect of vertical product differentiation on fare and market share: Evidence from Delta Air Lines’ middle seat policy 垂直产品差异化对票价和市场份额的影响:来自达美航空中座政策的证据
IF 2.8 3区 工程技术 Q2 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecotra.2022.100274
Max J. Hyman , Ian Savage

Delta Air Lines engaged in vertical product differentiation during the COVID-19 pandemic. To ensure that passengers did not sit next to a stranger, Delta did not sell the middle seat on its flights that had them. Its principal rivals, American Airlines and United Airlines, sold all seats. Analysis of the non-stop routes on which Delta faced head-to-head competition with American or United reveals that Delta was able to charge a 10% fare premium and increase its relative market share by 4.7 percentage points from its middle seat policy.

达美航空公司在COVID-19大流行期间进行了垂直产品差异化。为了确保乘客不会坐在陌生人旁边,达美航空在有中间座位的航班上不出售中间座位。它的主要竞争对手美国航空公司和联合航空公司出售了所有的座位。对达美航空与美国航空或美联航直接竞争的直飞航线的分析显示,达美航空能够收取10%的票价溢价,并将其相对市场份额提高了4.7个百分点。
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引用次数: 2
Pricing regime choices for international airports: A rationale for the non-discrimination principle 国际机场的定价机制选择:非歧视原则的基本原理
IF 2.8 3区 工程技术 Q2 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecotra.2022.100271
Ming Hsin Lin

This study investigates whether airports should be prohibited from charging differential charges to airlines. Two countries’ (publicly owned) airports and airlines interlink, and passengers travel round-trips. Each country may choose pricing regimes (uniform versus discriminatory charges) and charge levels, sequentially or simultaneously, to maximize local welfare. Surprisingly, we find that each country choosing uniform charges achieves unique equilibrium in the sequential game, in which countries may commit to a particular pricing regime before setting charge levels. However, in the simultaneous game without the commitment effect, each country choosing discriminatory charges achieves the unique equilibrium. The total welfare achieved under the former equilibrium is larger than (equal to) that under the latter for asymmetric (symmetric) airline competition. These findings provide the economic rationale for the prevalent non-discriminatory principles for international airports from a local and global welfare perspective.

本研究探讨机场是否应禁止向航空公司收取差别收费。两国的(公有)机场和航空公司相互连接,乘客往返。每个国家可以先后或同时选择定价制度(统一收费与歧视性收费)和收费水平,以最大限度地提高当地福利。令人惊讶的是,我们发现每个选择统一收费的国家在顺序博弈中实现了唯一的均衡,在顺序博弈中,各国可能在设定收费水平之前承诺特定的定价制度。然而,在不存在承诺效应的同时博弈中,每个国家选择的歧视性收费都达到了唯一的均衡。对于非对称(对称)航空公司竞争,前者均衡下的总福利大于(等于)后者均衡下的总福利。从当地和全球福利的角度来看,这些发现为国际机场普遍存在的非歧视原则提供了经济依据。
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引用次数: 0
Persistence and dynamics in the efficiency of toll motorways: The Spanish case 收费高速公路效率的持续性和动态:西班牙案例
IF 2.8 3区 工程技术 Q2 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecotra.2022.100270
José F. Baños-Pino, David Boto-García, Emma Zapico

This study performs an empirical analysis of the productive efficiency of toll motorway concessionaire companies in Spain. We estimate a dynamic stochastic frontier model using an input-oriented distance function for 30 concessionaires during the 2003–2015 period. Considering a multi-output production technology with light and heavy vehicles, we estimate an autoregressive dynamic specification under a Bayesian framework that acknowledges persistence in firm efficiency due to adjustment costs. Our results reveal: (i) large persistence in productive inefficiency in the toll motorway sector, (ii) technical change from 2006 onwards, and (iii) increasing returns to scale. We derive both short- and long-run inefficiency estimates and document that long-run inefficiency increases with the number of stretches a firm manages; however, inefficiency is unrelated to the political authority that grants the concession. We also find that the marginal cost of light vehicle-kilometres is about half that for heavy vehicles.

本研究对西班牙收费高速公路特许经营公司的生产效率进行了实证分析。我们利用投入导向距离函数对2003-2015年期间30家特许经营公司的动态随机前沿模型进行了估计。考虑轻型和重型车辆的多产量生产技术,我们在贝叶斯框架下估计了一个自回归动态规范,该规范承认由于调整成本而导致企业效率持续存在。我们的研究结果显示:(i)收费高速公路部门的生产效率低下持续存在;(ii) 2006年以来的技术变革;(iii)规模回报增加。我们得出了短期和长期的低效率估计,并证明长期的低效率随着公司管理的延伸次数而增加;然而,低效率与授予特许权的政治权威无关。我们还发现,轻型车辆公里的边际成本大约是重型车辆的一半。
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引用次数: 0
Optimal pricing and design of station-based bike-sharing systems: A microeconomic model 基于站点的共享单车系统的最优定价与设计:一个微观经济模型
IF 2.8 3区 工程技术 Q2 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecotra.2022.100273
Sergio Jara-Díaz, André Latournerie, Alejandro Tirachini, Félix Quitral

Carefully collected data of nine station-based Bike Sharing Systems (BSS) observed during several years, feed the theoretical formulation of three (aggregated) strategic models representing BSS operation from which the optimal design and pricing is derived. The models include both the operator's costs (investment and operation) and users' costs (time to walk to-from a station, waiting at a station, and time while cycling). The design variables are station spacing, number and capacity of stations, number of bicycles and bike repositioning. Once optimized, the design variables lead to cost functions and optimal pricing. In the first model, a permanent equilibrium without waiting times is assumed. In the second model, waiting at stations (due to a lack of bicycles or docking sites) is introduced in an aggregate form, which results in an increase in the optimal number of bikes and docking sites, making the optimal money price per trip to increase. The third and final model introduces repositioning of bicycles in order to diminish waiting time, making the optimal price grow even further. We obtain an optimal subsidy per trip that grows with the area covered by the BSS, which has implications for its actual implementation in large cities and their spatial and social equity. The optimal pricing scheme is caused by economies of scale due to the reduction in users' access and egress times as the density of stations increases (positive externality) in addition to a fixed operator cost.

仔细收集了9个基于站点的共享单车系统(BSS)几年来的观测数据,为代表BSS运行的三个(聚合)战略模型提供理论公式,并从中得出最优设计和定价。这些模型既包括运营商的成本(投资和运营),也包括用户的成本(从车站步行到车站的时间、在车站等待的时间和骑自行车的时间)。设计变量包括车站间距、车站数量和容量、自行车数量和自行车重新定位。一旦优化,设计变量导致成本函数和最优定价。在第一个模型中,假设一个不需要等待时间的永久均衡。在第二种模型中,以聚合形式引入车站等待(由于缺乏自行车或停靠点),导致最优自行车数量和停靠点数量增加,使得每次出行的最优货币价格增加。第三种也是最后一种模型引入了自行车的重新定位,以减少等待时间,使最优价格进一步增长。我们得到了随着BSS覆盖面积的增加而增加的最佳每次出行补贴,这对其在大城市的实际实施及其空间和社会公平具有重要意义。最优定价方案是由规模经济引起的,因为随着车站密度的增加,用户进出时间减少(正外部性),此外还有固定的运营商成本。
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引用次数: 3
Spillover delay effects of damaging wildlife strike events at U.S. airports 美国机场破坏性野生动物袭击事件的溢出延迟效应
IF 2.8 3区 工程技术 Q2 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-06-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecotra.2022.100252
Levi Altringer , Sammy Zahran , Stephanie A. Shwiff , Michael J. Begier , Aaron Anderson

In this paper, we investigate the spillover departure delay effects of damaging wildlife strike events that occur to commercial passenger airlines on flights scheduled to depart in the 24 h following a damaging wildlife strike event. Employing multiple empirical approaches, and investigating various differential effects, we identify significant excess departure delays in the 24-hour post-strike period. Our results suggest that the spillover delay effects of wildlife strike events are largely contained within the airline to which the strike occurred. The estimated effects are particularly large—5.4 to 8.3 times higher than expectation—for immediate within-airline, same-leg flights. Further, the behavior of the estimated spillover delay effects also depend on whether a strike flight’s destination airport is an airline hub or not. Our estimated average treatment effects indicate that, during the 24-hour post-strike period, the average damaging wildlife strike event generates a minimum of 570 aircraft minutes and roughly 40,000 passenger minutes of within-airline excess departure delay. From this, we estimate that damaging wildlife strike events generate around $25 million (2020 U.S. $) in spillover delay costs each year—an external cost borne by airlines, passengers, and the economy at large.

本文研究了破坏性野生动物罢工事件对商业客运航空公司在破坏性野生动物罢工事件发生后24小时内起飞的航班的溢出起飞延迟效应。采用多种经验方法,并调查各种差异效应,我们确定了罢工后24小时内显著的超额出发延误。我们的研究结果表明,野生动物罢工事件的溢出延迟效应主要包含在发生罢工的航空公司内部。对于直接在同一航线内飞行的航班,估计的影响尤其大,是预期的5.4至8.3倍。此外,估计溢出延迟效应的行为还取决于罢工航班的目的地机场是否为航空枢纽。我们估计的平均处理效果表明,在罢工后的24小时内,平均破坏性野生动物罢工事件至少产生570飞机分钟和大约40,000乘客分钟的航空公司超额起飞延误。据此,我们估计,破坏性的野生动物袭击事件每年产生约2500万美元(2020年美元)的溢出延误成本,这是由航空公司、乘客和整个经济承担的外部成本。
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引用次数: 1
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Economics of Transportation
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