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Border carbon adjustment compliance and the WTO: the interactional evolution of law 边境碳调整履约与世贸组织:法律的互动演变
IF 3.1 1区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-02-23 DOI: 10.1093/jiel/jgae007
Laurie Durel
International law and its understanding can evolve outside of treaties, but little is known about the elements that can explain these changes. This paper looks at the debate on border carbon adjustment (BCA) compatibility with the World Trade Organization (WTO) and argues that international law depends on the actors’ perceptions, which can change over time. It applies an interactional international law framework to explain how a policy that was once deemed incompatible with WTO rules is now considered ‘WTO-compliant’ by the European Union. A discourse network analysis is conducted based on debates from the WTO and the literature over 24 years. Results show that since 2012, the legal literature has increasingly been more confident that BCA could be WTO-compatible, despite the absence of significant changes in WTO case law during the same period. This increase in support was sustained by an expanded practice of legality and a perceived lack of legality of applicable WTO rules. This research offers new insights into the dynamics of international law. It provides new methodological avenues for scholars seeking to trace the evolution of law and legal understanding through formal and informal processes.
国际法及其理解可以在条约之外发生演变,但人们对解释这些变化的因素知之甚少。本文探讨了关于边境碳排放调整(BCA)是否符合世界贸易组织(WTO)的争论,并认为国际法取决于行为者的观念,而这些观念会随着时间的推移而改变。本研究运用互动国际法框架来解释一项曾被认为不符合世界贸易组织规则的政策如今是如何被欧盟视为 "符合世界贸易组织 "的。本文基于 24 年来世贸组织的辩论和文献,进行了话语网络分析。结果表明,自 2012 年以来,尽管同期世贸组织的判例法没有发生重大变化,但法律文献越来越相信《巴塞尔公约》可以与世贸组织兼容。支持率的上升得益于合法性实践的扩大以及人们认为适用的世贸组织规则缺乏合法性。这项研究为了解国际法的动态提供了新的视角。它为试图通过正式和非正式过程追踪法律和法律理解演变的学者提供了新的方法论途径。
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引用次数: 0
Making international trade work for sustainable development: toward a new WTO framework for subsidies 让国际贸易为可持续发展服务:建立新的世贸组织补贴框架
IF 3.1 1区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-02-22 DOI: 10.1093/jiel/jgae008
Elena Cima, Daniel C Esty
Government subsidies for fossil fuels, agricultural production, and fisheries amount to trillions of dollars per year. This funding harms economic inefficiency, disrupts trade, and actively exacerbates the global environmental and climate crises. Moreover, the scale of these subsidies far exceeds the support provided to industries and activities that contribute to the transition towards a low-carbon and sustainable future economy. In seeking to discipline such subsidies, trade law has traditionally focused on whether the funding distorts trade without regard to the rationale or purpose of the subsidies. In this article, we argue that this approach to subsidies is at once incompatible with (i) the original vision of multilateral trade law, (ii) what is needed to manage international economic interdependence in today’s world, and (iii) the present moment’s urgent need to take seriously sustainable development as the ultimate objective of the trading system. The reform package we present in this article calls for a reframing of WTO subsidies rules on a foundation that gauges alignment with sustainable development alongside trade distortions, with sustainability becoming the first and foremost test of whether subsidies should be permitted—consistent with the sustainable development mandate in the Marrakesh Agreement that established the WTO.
政府对化石燃料、农业生产和渔业的补贴每年高达数万亿美元。这些资金损害了经济效率,扰乱了贸易,并积极加剧了全球环境和气候危机。此外,这些补贴的规模远远超出了对有助于向低碳和可持续未来经济转型的产业和活动的支持。在寻求约束此类补贴时,贸易法传统上侧重于资金是否扭曲了贸易,而不考虑补贴的理由或目的。在本文中,我们认为这种处理补贴的方法不符合:(i) 多边贸易法的最初愿景;(ii) 当今世界管理国际经济相互依存的需要;(iii) 当前将可持续发展作为贸易体系最终目标的迫切需要。我们在本文中提出的一揽子改革方案要求在衡量贸易扭曲与可持续发展是否一致的基础上重新构建世贸组织的补贴规则,使可持续性成为检验是否允许补贴的首要标准--这与成立世贸组织的《马拉喀什协定》中的可持续发展任务相一致。
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引用次数: 0
Transatlantic leadership in an era of human rights-based export controls 在基于人权的出口管制时代发挥跨大西洋领导作用
IF 3.1 1区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-02-22 DOI: 10.1093/jiel/jgae005
Nina M Hart, Christopher A Casey
In 2021, the USA and the European Union (EU) expressed an interest in deepening their cooperation with each other and other international actors on export controls to address evolving security risks, including the misuse of dual-use technologies to violate human rights. This interest presents an opportunity to probe the potential for US–EU leadership, as a stated intention of these actors, in developing standards that incorporate human rights considerations into export control policy. To undertake this analysis, this article assesses the legal and political context in which the USA and the EU regulate exports and how this context affects potential opportunities for leadership. The article contends that the USA and EU may struggle to exercise joint leadership due to their divergent systems but may be capable of doing so if they invest in creative diplomatic efforts. In particular, the USA possesses greater legal flexibility than the EU to propose new standards and to engage in diplomatic efforts to multilateralize them. In short, the EU’s structural limitations create a dynamic in which the EU will rely heavily on US diplomacy, as well as that of its Member States, to achieve its objective of creating US–EU leadership in this area.
2021 年,美国和欧盟(EU)表示有兴趣在出口管制方面深化彼此及其他国际行为体的合作,以应对不断变化的安全风险,包括滥用双重用途技术侵犯人权的问题。这种兴趣提供了一个机会,可借以探究美国-欧盟在制定将人权因素纳入出口管制政策的标准方面发挥领导作用的潜力,这也是这些行为体所表明的意图。为了进行分析,本文评估了美国和欧盟监管出口的法律和政治背景,以及这种背景如何影响潜在的领导机会。文章认为,由于制度不同,美国和欧盟可能难以发挥联合领导作用,但如果投入创造性的外交努力,它们可能有能力发挥领导作用。特别是,美国比欧盟拥有更大的法律灵活性,可以提出新的标准,并通过外交努力使其多边化。简而言之,欧盟的结构性限制造成了一种动态,即欧盟将在很大程度上依赖美国及其成员国的外交,以实现其在这一领域建立美国-欧盟领导地位的目标。
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引用次数: 0
Compliance politics and international investment disputes: a new dataset 合规政治与国际投资争端:一个新的数据集
IF 3.1 1区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-02-16 DOI: 10.1093/jiel/jgae004
Nicola Strain, Runar Hilleren Lie, Yuliya Chernykh, Even Espelid, Taylor St John, Malcolm Langford, Isabella Cuervo-Lorens, Daniel Peat, Maria Florencia Sarmiento, Coen Ripson, Maxim Usynin, Faadhil Adams, Tarald Gulseth Berge, Laura Létourneau-Tremblay, Prevy Parekh, Szilárd Gáspár-Szilágyi, Morr Link, Lara Eguia, Øyvind Stiansen, Emilia Onyema
The ability to ensure compliance with investor-state arbitral awards is often regarded as one of the strengths of the international investment regime. Yet, there have been few systematic studies of compliance to assess the extent to which states have actually complied with adverse investor-state compensation awards. This paper presents a new dataset that enables empirical research on compliance with these decisions; it is the first publicly available dataset to focus on what happens after awards are handed down, and in this way complements other databases on international investment law. This paper explains the data collection process (and its associated challenges), discusses the design choices made in selecting inputs and variables, presents a descriptive overview of the data, and examines how variables can be used in future research. Moreover, various cases are used as illustrations of the challenges of collecting and coding data on post-award processes and we explore what missing data can tell us about compliance dynamics.
确保遵守投资者与国家间仲裁裁决的能力往往被视为国际投资制度的优势之一。然而,很少有系统的研究来评估各国在多大程度上实际遵守了投资者与国家间的不利赔偿裁决。本文介绍了一个新的数据集,可以对这些裁决的遵守情况进行实证研究;这是第一个公开可用的数据集,重点关注裁决下达后的情况,从而对其他国际投资法数据库起到补充作用。本文解释了数据收集过程(及其相关挑战),讨论了在选择输入和变量时所作的设计选择,对数据进行了描述性概述,并探讨了如何在未来研究中使用变量。此外,我们还利用各种案例来说明在收集和编码授标后流程数据时所面临的挑战,并探讨了缺失数据能为我们提供哪些有关合规动态的信息。
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引用次数: 0
Critical insecurities? The European Union’s strategy for a stable supply of minerals 关键的不安全因素?欧盟的矿产稳定供应战略
IF 3.1 1区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-02-07 DOI: 10.1093/jiel/jgae003
Victor Crochet, Weihuan Zhou
The green transition is creating exponential needs for critical minerals. As demand currently exceeds supply for many of these minerals, governments worldwide are devising strategies to secure stable procurements of the minerals they lack as well as to ensure that they reap the benefits of their own natural wealth. The European Union (EU) is in a difficult position in this regard due to limited domestic reserves and, thus, serves as an ideal case study to explore developments in international economic law on this issue. Internally, the EU has been reforming its financing mechanisms, developing risk management tools, and enhancing recycling. Externally, the EU has been using international trade tools to focus on access to supply rather than traditional market access issues while also developing new investment rules to open doors and protect its foreign investors in extractive industries. Both internal and external actions are being coordinated with allies through new cooperative mechanisms. However, challenges abound. These strategies will face resistance from resource-abundant economies in view of their growing demand for policy space to protect their own mineral sector. Such strategies are also inherently competitive and, hence, might lead to growing tensions among resource-seeking economies themselves.
绿色转型对关键矿产的需求呈指数级增长。由于目前许多矿产供不应求,世界各国政府正在制定战略,以确保稳定采购其所缺乏的矿产,并确保从本国的自然财富中获益。由于国内储量有限,欧盟(EU)在这方面处境艰难,因此成为探讨国际经济法在此问题上发展的理想案例研究。在内部,欧盟一直在改革其融资机制,开发风险管理工具,并加强回收利用。在外部,欧盟一直在利用国际贸易工具,重点关注供应准入而非传统的市场准入问题,同时还在制定新的投资规则,为采掘业的外国投资者敞开大门并提供保护。通过新的合作机制,欧盟正在与盟国协调内部和外部行动。然而,挑战重重。这些战略将面临来自资源丰富经济体的阻力,因为它们日益需要政策空间来保护自己的矿产部门。这些战略本身也是竞争性的,因此可能导致资源寻求经济体之间的关系日益紧张。
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引用次数: 0
Contradictions and tensions in the way the USMCA regulates energy USMCA 能源管理方式中的矛盾和冲突
IF 3.1 1区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-01-12 DOI: 10.1093/jiel/jgad036
Guillermo J Garcia Sanchez
The international regulation of energy is complex, involving various legal frameworks such as economic agreements, environmental conventions, and dispute resolution mechanisms. These instruments often overlap and may not align, creating challenges for addressing energy-related issues. The United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA) exemplifies these complexities. It addresses entitlements to natural resources, protection of energy-related transactions, cross-border energy policies, and environmental externalities. However, the USMCA does not fully resolve conflicts among differing policy goals within the energy sector. This article examines how the USMCA navigates issues related to resource entitlements, energy transactions, policy clashes, and environmental concerns. It argues that the absence of a unified energy policy leaves disputes to be balanced by resolution bodies, such as arbitration panels. The article scrutinizes each aspect of the USMCA’s approach and discusses potential mechanisms for resolving policy conflicts. The USMCA’s treatment of energy-related matters underscores the intricate interplay between international economic law and the energy sector, with implications for regional competitiveness and sustainability.
能源的国际监管非常复杂,涉及各种法律框架,如经济协定、环境公约和争端解决机制。这些文书经常重叠,也可能不一致,给解决能源相关问题带来了挑战。美国-墨西哥-加拿大协定》(USMCA)就体现了这些复杂性。它涉及对自然资源的权利、对能源相关交易的保护、跨境能源政策和环境外部性。然而,USMCA 并未完全解决能源领域内不同政策目标之间的冲突。本文探讨了 USMCA 如何解决资源权益、能源交易、政策冲突和环境问题。文章认为,由于缺乏统一的能源政策,争端只能由仲裁小组等解决机构来平衡。文章对 USMCA 方法的各个方面进行了仔细研究,并讨论了解决政策冲突的潜在机制。USMCA 对能源相关问题的处理强调了国际经济法与能源部门之间错综复杂的相互作用,对地区竞争力和可持续性产生了影响。
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引用次数: 0
From pledges to neglect: treaties and the rule of law promise 从承诺到忽视:条约与法治承诺
IF 3.1 1区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2024-01-04 DOI: 10.1093/jiel/jgad047
L. Poulsen
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引用次数: 0
The energy transition at a critical juncture 处于紧要关头的能源转型
IF 3.1 1区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2023-12-21 DOI: 10.1093/jiel/jgad045
Oliver Hailes, J. Viñuales
Amid the Ukraine war, the energy transition has reached a critical juncture: decisions taken by key governmental or commercial actors may irreversibly threaten efforts to limit the rise in global average temperature to 1.5°C. After defining the notions of ‘energy transition’ and ‘critical juncture’, this article describes how the ‘international law of energy’ may both entrench a socio-technical regime based on fossil fuels and promote the transition towards renewable energy. These categories serve to frame several contributions to a symposium, which assist in mapping the rules, processes, and institutions that organize the decisional options of key actors as they try to drive the energy transition through this critical juncture. We conclude by recalling the practical utility of this dynamic map and the pressing need for an authoritative compass to give interpretive direction to the legal organization of the entitlements, obligations, and decisional options of key actors in reorienting energy activities to avoid the catastrophic tipping points of climate change.
在乌克兰战争期间,能源转型已到了紧要关头:关键政府或商业行为者的决策可能会不可逆转地威胁到将全球平均气温升幅限制在 1.5°C 的努力。在定义了 "能源转型 "和 "紧要关头 "这两个概念后,本文阐述了 "国际能源法 "如何既能巩固基于化石燃料的社会技术体制,又能促进向可再生能源的转型。这些分类有助于为专题讨论会的多篇论文提供框架,从而帮助绘制规则、程序和制度图,这些规则、程序和制度组织了关键行为者的决策选择,因为他们试图通过这一关键时刻推动能源转型。最后,我们回顾了这幅动态地图的实际效用,以及对权威指南针的迫切需要,以便在调整能源活动方向以避免气候变化的灾难性临界点时,为关键行为者的权利、义务和决策选择的法律组织提供解释性方向。
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引用次数: 0
International law in the China–Russian energy partnership: mapping the partnership-based relational approach 中俄能源合作关系中的国际法:基于合作关系的方法图谱
IF 3.1 1区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2023-12-19 DOI: 10.1093/jiel/jgad041
Yuanyuan Zhang
Over the past decades, the China–Russian energy partnership has become firmly established. Significant milestones such as the 2009 oil and the 2014 gas deals demonstrate the geopolitical impact of this partnership. The article finds that the China–Russian energy cooperation uses a partnership-based relational approach that eschews rulemaking by treaty. Instead, the legal framework of this partnership is multi-layered and has distinct features. It relies heavily on bilateralism, pragmatic cooperation, and non-binding commitments. A range of instruments applies at the bilateral level, including a bilateral investment treaty, energy cooperation agreements, intergovernmental agreements on significant energy deals, and many joint communiques and statements of a soft law nature. Regarding regional energy governance, China and Russia prefer different approaches, as reflected in their participation in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the Eurasian Economic Union, and the Belt and Road Initiative. While these regional mechanisms contribute to the energy partnership, their impact on the legal framework is limited.
过去几十年来,中俄能源合作关系已牢固确立。2009 年的石油交易和 2014 年的天然气交易等重要里程碑表明了这一伙伴关系的地缘政治影响。文章认为,中俄能源合作采用了一种基于伙伴关系的关系方法,避免了通过条约制定规则。相反,这种伙伴关系的法律框架是多层次的,具有鲜明的特点。它在很大程度上依赖于双边主义、务实合作和非约束性承诺。在双边层面适用一系列文书,包括双边投资条约、能源合作协议、关于重大能源交易的政府间协议以及许多软法律性质的联合公报和声明。在地区能源治理方面,中国和俄罗斯倾向于不同的方法,这体现在它们对上海合作组织、欧亚经济联盟和 "一带一路 "倡议的参与上。虽然这些地区机制有助于能源伙伴关系,但对法律框架的影响有限。
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引用次数: 0
Towards a ‘security-centred’ energy transition: balancing the European Union’s ambitions and geopolitical realities 实现 "以安全为中心 "的能源转型:平衡欧盟的雄心与地缘政治现实
IF 3.1 1区 社会学 Q1 LAW Pub Date : 2023-12-19 DOI: 10.1093/jiel/jgad043
Anna-Alexandra Marhold
The European Union (EU) faces a pressing, multi-level energy crisis propelled by the perfect storm of Russia’s war in Ukraine and rapidly progressing climate change. As a result, the EU is scrambling to ensure it has sufficient energy supplies for the foreseeable future while reinventing its energy strategy in the long term. Since the EU is at a critical juncture for squaring EU energy security with European and international legal commitments, this article surveys this radical shift and its consequences. It analyses new EU-wide crisis-response tools and ad hoc bilateral arrangements with third countries against existing legal commitments. Recent developments are only the beginning of a much larger re-evaluation of core notions of the ‘trade-energy security’ nexus. To decarbonize, the EU must move towards a ‘security-centred’ energy transition, premised on ‘security first, compliance second’. This requires reassessing the notion of ‘protectionism’ in geopolitically sensitive areas and the current division of energy competences between the EU and its Member States.
在俄罗斯乌克兰战争和快速发展的气候变化这两场完美风暴的推动下,欧盟(EU)面临着紧迫的多层次能源危机。因此,欧盟正竭力确保在可预见的未来有充足的能源供应,同时重塑其长期能源战略。由于欧盟正处于将欧盟能源安全与欧洲和国际法律承诺相挂钩的关键时刻,本文对这一根本性转变及其后果进行了探讨。文章对照现有的法律承诺,分析了欧盟范围内新的危机应对工具以及与第三国的特别双边安排。最近的发展只是对 "贸易-能源安全 "关系的核心概念进行更大规模重新评估的开始。要实现去碳化,欧盟必须以 "安全第一,合规第二 "为前提,向 "以安全为中心 "的能源转型。这就需要重新评估地缘政治敏感地区的 "保护主义 "概念,以及欧盟与其成员国之间目前的能源权限划分。
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引用次数: 0
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Journal of International Economic Law
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