Pub Date : 2025-12-18DOI: 10.1177/01979183251405866
Christian Joppke
Previous scholarship on migration policy assumed that economics and culture are categorically separate criteria of migrant selection, often pushing policy in opposite directions, typically expansive on economics yet restrictive on culture. I argue that in a neoliberal order the economics versus culture distinction loses traction. “Neoliberal nationalism” entails a transactional understanding of political community and society, in which economic considerations become predominant across selection criteria. This strongly relativizes and weakens individual rights on the part of migrants, which had been the mark of liberal migration policy. Neoliberal migration policy simultaneously economizes and culturalizes migrant selection. This is obvious and nearly trite with respect to high-skilled labor migration, the type favored in a neoliberal society. But it is also observable, and more problematic, with respect to family and asylum migrations, which previously had been considered as-of-right and now are subjected to (broadly construed) utility considerations.
{"title":"Beyond the Economics Versus Culture Divide: Neoliberal Migration Policy","authors":"Christian Joppke","doi":"10.1177/01979183251405866","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/01979183251405866","url":null,"abstract":"Previous scholarship on migration policy assumed that economics and culture are categorically separate criteria of migrant selection, often pushing policy in opposite directions, typically expansive on economics yet restrictive on culture. I argue that in a neoliberal order the economics versus culture distinction loses traction. “Neoliberal nationalism” entails a transactional understanding of political community and society, in which economic considerations become predominant across selection criteria. This strongly relativizes and weakens individual rights on the part of migrants, which had been the mark of liberal migration policy. Neoliberal migration policy simultaneously economizes and culturalizes migrant selection. This is obvious and nearly trite with respect to high-skilled labor migration, the type favored in a neoliberal society. But it is also observable, and more problematic, with respect to family and asylum migrations, which previously had been considered as-of-right and now are subjected to (broadly construed) utility considerations.","PeriodicalId":48229,"journal":{"name":"International Migration Review","volume":"21 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-12-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145801074","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-18DOI: 10.1177/01979183251405833
Arnfinn H. Midtbøen, Jon Horgen Friberg, Solveig Topstad Borgen
In the US and the UK, rapidly growing populations of mixed origins have constituted a key research site for decades. In most European countries, by contrast, the mixed-origin group has remained largely invisible within research on immigration-related inequality and especially so in its quantitative branch. Breaking this pattern, we zoom in on Norwegian-born individuals with one parent born outside of Western Europe and North America, a group constituting about a third of the country's overall mixed-origin population. Drawing on administrative register data and survey data from the Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study in Norway, we assess their socioeconomic backgrounds, educational aspirations, and subjective experiences, and compare them to individuals with two Norwegian-born parents and two immigrant parents. Our analyses document a contradictory pattern that begs for future research: Mixed-origin individuals largely resemble their majority peers in terms of parental socioeconomic resources, but they lack the educational drive typical of the second generation, in terms of both subjective aspirations and actual educational attainments. In their social orientations and national identification, they are located somewhere in between the minority and the majority, but they experience similar levels of discrimination and non-recognition as those with two immigrant parents. We use these contradictory findings to discuss possible ways forward for a broader research agenda for mixed-origin populations beyond the US and the UK.
{"title":"Under the Radar: An Examination of Norway's Mixed-Origin Population","authors":"Arnfinn H. Midtbøen, Jon Horgen Friberg, Solveig Topstad Borgen","doi":"10.1177/01979183251405833","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/01979183251405833","url":null,"abstract":"In the US and the UK, rapidly growing populations of mixed origins have constituted a key research site for decades. In most European countries, by contrast, the mixed-origin group has remained largely invisible within research on immigration-related inequality and especially so in its quantitative branch. Breaking this pattern, we zoom in on Norwegian-born individuals with one parent born outside of Western Europe and North America, a group constituting about a third of the country's overall mixed-origin population. Drawing on administrative register data and survey data from the Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study in Norway, we assess their socioeconomic backgrounds, educational aspirations, and subjective experiences, and compare them to individuals with two Norwegian-born parents and two immigrant parents. Our analyses document a contradictory pattern that begs for future research: Mixed-origin individuals largely resemble their majority peers in terms of parental socioeconomic resources, but they lack the educational drive typical of the second generation, in terms of both subjective aspirations and actual educational attainments. In their social orientations and national identification, they are located somewhere in between the minority and the majority, but they experience similar levels of discrimination and non-recognition as those with two immigrant parents. We use these contradictory findings to discuss possible ways forward for a broader research agenda for mixed-origin populations beyond the US and the UK.","PeriodicalId":48229,"journal":{"name":"International Migration Review","volume":"361 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-12-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145801073","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-18DOI: 10.1177/01979183251405858
David Scott FitzGerald, John H. Evans
Advocates for refugees often publicize increased numbers of refugees, seemingly to generate greater support for pro-refugee policies. In this research note we test whether reading about a greater number of refugees results in more, less, or unchanged feelings of support for pro-refugee policies via a survey experiment from a national sample of more than 3000 U.S. adults. Accounting for uncertainty over whether the public will perceive differential magnitudes on a logarithmic or linear scale, we find that for U.S. adults as a whole, the magnitude of the number of refugees does not lead to support or opposition to policies to (a) admit more refugees or (b) fund refugee relief abroad. Republicans are much less likely to support such policies compared to Democrats, independent of the number of refugees. Surprisingly, Republicans are more likely than Democrats to respond to larger numbers with greater support for both policies. Refugee advocates should not assume that reporting increased numbers of refugees will result in more public support for funding refugees abroad or refugee admissions in the United States.
{"title":"Refugee Fatigue? How Reports of Increased Numbers of Refugees Affect Public Attitudes About Admission and Overseas Relief","authors":"David Scott FitzGerald, John H. Evans","doi":"10.1177/01979183251405858","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/01979183251405858","url":null,"abstract":"Advocates for refugees often publicize increased numbers of refugees, seemingly to generate greater support for pro-refugee policies. In this research note we test whether reading about a greater number of refugees results in more, less, or unchanged feelings of support for pro-refugee policies via a survey experiment from a national sample of more than 3000 U.S. adults. Accounting for uncertainty over whether the public will perceive differential magnitudes on a logarithmic or linear scale, we find that for U.S. adults as a whole, the magnitude of the number of refugees does not lead to support or opposition to policies to (a) admit more refugees or (b) fund refugee relief abroad. Republicans are much less likely to support such policies compared to Democrats, independent of the number of refugees. Surprisingly, Republicans are more likely than Democrats to respond to larger numbers with greater support for both policies. Refugee advocates should not assume that reporting increased numbers of refugees will result in more public support for funding refugees abroad or refugee admissions in the United States.","PeriodicalId":48229,"journal":{"name":"International Migration Review","volume":"31 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-12-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145801072","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-16DOI: 10.1177/01979183251405735
Katharina Ebner
{"title":"Book Review: Law, Migration, and the Construction of Whiteness: Mobility Within the European Union by Myslinska, Dagmar Rita MyslinskaDagmar Rita, 2024. Law, Migration, and the Construction of Whiteness: Mobility Within the European Union. Abingdon, Oxon, UK; New York, NY: Routledge. 260 Pages. $180.00.","authors":"Katharina Ebner","doi":"10.1177/01979183251405735","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/01979183251405735","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":48229,"journal":{"name":"International Migration Review","volume":"29 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-12-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145765159","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-15DOI: 10.1177/01979183251397379
Mary Rose Geraldine Sarausad, Sureeporn Punpuing
Urban refugees and asylum seekers in Thailand are confronted with the complexities of autonomy and precarity beyond formal camp arrangements. Although cities offer some flexibility, refugees face systemic impediments that include the absence of legal recognition, restrictive immigration policies, and marginalization exacerbated by prolonged waiting, demonstrating the realities of being a refugee . This qualitative study examines the influence of Thailand's migration governance system on the realities of protracted displacement among urban refugees, utilizing in-depth interviews with 35 participants (14 key experts and 21 refugees) in Bangkok and peripheral areas. Findings indicate that Thailand's non-ratification of the 1951 Refugee Convention labels refugees as “illegal migrants” under domestic law, subjecting them to arrest and deportation in spite of UNHCR recognition. While most depend on insecure informal work, they are generally excluded from healthcare, education, and social protection, threatening their well-being and perpetuating a cycle of marginalization that hampers the likelihood for inclusion and self-reliance. The COVID-19 pandemic aggravated their precarious conditions, disrupted their livelihoods, and community support networks. The study also highlights how extended periods of legal uncertainty and administrative delays in refugee status determination magnify mental and emotional health issues and social exclusion. Therefore, it advocates for policy reforms that include strengthening Thailand's National Screening Mechanism through nondiscriminatory legal process, creating stable employment prospects by providing work permits, and ensuring equitable access to social infrastructures such as healthcare and education regardless of status. The findings also amplify extensive discussions on the management of urban displacement in non-signatory countries, illustrating how urban refugee populations are consigned to an indefinite state of legal uncertainty and heightened precarity.
{"title":"Waiting and the Everyday Life in Precarity: The Impact of Thailand's Approach to Forced Displacement on Urban Refugees and Asylum Seekers","authors":"Mary Rose Geraldine Sarausad, Sureeporn Punpuing","doi":"10.1177/01979183251397379","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/01979183251397379","url":null,"abstract":"Urban refugees and asylum seekers in Thailand are confronted with the complexities of autonomy and precarity beyond formal camp arrangements. Although cities offer some flexibility, refugees face systemic impediments that include the absence of legal recognition, restrictive immigration policies, and marginalization exacerbated by prolonged waiting, demonstrating the realities of <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">being a refugee</jats:italic> . This qualitative study examines the influence of Thailand's migration governance system on the realities of protracted displacement among urban refugees, utilizing in-depth interviews with 35 participants (14 key experts and 21 refugees) in Bangkok and peripheral areas. Findings indicate that Thailand's non-ratification of the 1951 Refugee Convention labels refugees as “illegal migrants” under domestic law, subjecting them to arrest and deportation in spite of UNHCR recognition. While most depend on insecure informal work, they are generally excluded from healthcare, education, and social protection, threatening their well-being and perpetuating a cycle of marginalization that hampers the likelihood for inclusion and self-reliance. The COVID-19 pandemic aggravated their precarious conditions, disrupted their livelihoods, and community support networks. The study also highlights how extended periods of legal uncertainty and administrative delays in refugee status determination magnify mental and emotional health issues and social exclusion. Therefore, it advocates for policy reforms that include strengthening Thailand's National Screening Mechanism through nondiscriminatory legal process, creating stable employment prospects by providing work permits, and ensuring equitable access to social infrastructures such as healthcare and education regardless of status. The findings also amplify extensive discussions on the management of urban displacement in non-signatory countries, illustrating how urban refugee populations are consigned to an indefinite state of legal uncertainty and heightened precarity.","PeriodicalId":48229,"journal":{"name":"International Migration Review","volume":"2 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-12-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145759580","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-11DOI: 10.1177/01979183251405732
Beenish Riaz
{"title":"Book Review: On the Record CoutinSusan Bibler. 2025. On the Record: Papers, Immigration and Legal Advocacy. Oakland, California: University of California Press. 163 pp., $34.95.","authors":"Beenish Riaz","doi":"10.1177/01979183251405732","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/01979183251405732","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":48229,"journal":{"name":"International Migration Review","volume":"227 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-12-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145730958","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-05DOI: 10.1177/01979183251399146
Cornelius Wright Cappelen, Hakan G. Sicakkan, Pierre Georges Van Wolleghem
Asylum policies present decision-makers with a difficult trade-off between falsely rejecting deserving applicants (false negatives) and falsely accepting undeserving ones (false positives). How does the public view this dilemma? Using original survey data from 26 countries ( n = 27,429), this study provides novel evidence on public attitudes regarding these two types of errors. Our analysis reveals a complex landscape of public opinion: the largest single group of respondents (nearly 40%) considers both mistakes to be equally serious, declining to prioritize one over the other. Among those who do choose, there is a significant preference for avoiding false negatives. We find that these distinct positions are not random. Attitudes on this issue are strongly associated with overall asylum policy preferences, and key predictors such as welfare chauvinism, nativism, and political ideology systematically distinguish those who prioritize false negatives, those who prioritize false positives, and those who view both errors as equally grave. These findings highlight that public support for the international refugee regime is shaped by at least three distinct viewpoints on administrative fairness, providing crucial insights for policymaking on asylum and immigration.
{"title":"Decision-Making Mistakes in Asylum Policy: A Comparative Study of Public Opinion","authors":"Cornelius Wright Cappelen, Hakan G. Sicakkan, Pierre Georges Van Wolleghem","doi":"10.1177/01979183251399146","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/01979183251399146","url":null,"abstract":"Asylum policies present decision-makers with a difficult trade-off between falsely rejecting deserving applicants (false negatives) and falsely accepting undeserving ones (false positives). How does the public view this dilemma? Using original survey data from 26 countries ( <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">n</jats:italic> = 27,429), this study provides novel evidence on public attitudes regarding these two types of errors. Our analysis reveals a complex landscape of public opinion: the largest single group of respondents (nearly 40%) considers both mistakes to be equally serious, declining to prioritize one over the other. Among those who do choose, there is a significant preference for avoiding false negatives. We find that these distinct positions are not random. Attitudes on this issue are strongly associated with overall asylum policy preferences, and key predictors such as welfare chauvinism, nativism, and political ideology systematically distinguish those who prioritize false negatives, those who prioritize false positives, and those who view both errors as equally grave. These findings highlight that public support for the international refugee regime is shaped by at least three distinct viewpoints on administrative fairness, providing crucial insights for policymaking on asylum and immigration.","PeriodicalId":48229,"journal":{"name":"International Migration Review","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-12-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145680264","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-03DOI: 10.1177/01979183251399145
Marianne Tønnessen
The regional distribution of immigrant populations in Western countries has changed over the last decades. Such changes are usually explained by changes in immigrants’ initial settlements and/or their subsequent internal migration patterns. This Research Note draws attention to a third factor: emigration. When immigrants in urban areas are more prone to emigrate than their rural peers, this contributes to a less urbanized immigrant population. Using Norwegian data, this study follows the immigrant cohort who arrived between 2000 and 2013, grouped by their immigration category, during their first 10 years after arrival in Norway. The results show how emigration from the most urban areas has contributed to a less urbanized (remaining) immigrant cohort. For some immigrant groups, this de-urbanizing emigration has outweighed the urbanizing effects of internal migration.
{"title":"How Emigration Contributes to Less Urbanized Immigrant Populations","authors":"Marianne Tønnessen","doi":"10.1177/01979183251399145","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/01979183251399145","url":null,"abstract":"The regional distribution of immigrant populations in Western countries has changed over the last decades. Such changes are usually explained by changes in immigrants’ initial settlements and/or their subsequent internal migration patterns. This Research Note draws attention to a third factor: emigration. When immigrants in urban areas are more prone to emigrate than their rural peers, this contributes to a less urbanized immigrant population. Using Norwegian data, this study follows the immigrant cohort who arrived between 2000 and 2013, grouped by their immigration category, during their first 10 years after arrival in Norway. The results show how emigration from the most urban areas has contributed to a less urbanized (remaining) immigrant cohort. For some immigrant groups, this de-urbanizing emigration has outweighed the urbanizing effects of internal migration.","PeriodicalId":48229,"journal":{"name":"International Migration Review","volume":"12 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-12-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145664536","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-02DOI: 10.1177/01979183251400248
Yajie Dong
{"title":"Book Review: Social Networks and Migration RyanL., 2023. Social Networks and Migration: Relocations, Relationships and Resources. Bristol: Bristol University Press. 214 page, £27.99.","authors":"Yajie Dong","doi":"10.1177/01979183251400248","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/01979183251400248","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":48229,"journal":{"name":"International Migration Review","volume":"12 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-12-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145664487","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-02DOI: 10.1177/01979183251390571
Catalina Amuedo-Dorantes, Mónica García-Pérez, Fernando Pinto
Using Colombian Vital Statistics, this study compares birth outcomes between Venezuelan migrant mothers who recently resided in Venezuela and Colombian mothers following the death of Hugo Chávez. While rates of low birth weight are similar, Venezuelan migrants face significantly higher risks of pregnancy loss, with fetal deaths rising sharply relative to their Colombian counterparts. Key contributors include inadequate healthcare coverage, pregnancy-related conditions, and limited medical assistance during delivery. Although the data do not capture when migration occurred during pregnancy, most fetal deaths happen early in gestation, suggesting that these outcomes likely reflect in-utero exposure to deteriorating living and healthcare conditions in post-Chávez Venezuela, compounded by the stress of displacement. The findings highlight the critical role of prenatal care and living conditions in ensuring healthy pregnancies and underscore the need to look beyond live-birth outcomes when assessing infant health among vulnerable migrant populations.
{"title":"The Elusiveness of Life: Birth Outcomes Among Venezuelan Migrant Mothers in Colombia","authors":"Catalina Amuedo-Dorantes, Mónica García-Pérez, Fernando Pinto","doi":"10.1177/01979183251390571","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/01979183251390571","url":null,"abstract":"Using Colombian Vital Statistics, this study compares birth outcomes between Venezuelan migrant mothers who recently resided in Venezuela and Colombian mothers following the death of Hugo Chávez. While rates of low birth weight are similar, Venezuelan migrants face significantly higher risks of pregnancy loss, with fetal deaths rising sharply relative to their Colombian counterparts. Key contributors include inadequate healthcare coverage, pregnancy-related conditions, and limited medical assistance during delivery. Although the data do not capture when migration occurred during pregnancy, most fetal deaths happen early in gestation, suggesting that these outcomes likely reflect in-utero exposure to deteriorating living and healthcare conditions in post-Chávez Venezuela, compounded by the stress of displacement. The findings highlight the critical role of prenatal care and living conditions in ensuring healthy pregnancies and underscore the need to look beyond live-birth outcomes when assessing infant health among vulnerable migrant populations.","PeriodicalId":48229,"journal":{"name":"International Migration Review","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-12-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145651523","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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