Pub Date : 2026-01-07DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102865
Suzanne E. Hidi , K. Ann Renninger
Although there are various approaches to the conceptualization of interest, here we address that of the four-phase model of interest development (Hidi & Renninger, 2006). Interest is universal as all humans have such experiences, and it has physiological roots. Interest also is individually varying since the triggering of interest is influenced by genetics, personal characteristics, interactions with other people, and the design of the environment. Given the importance of interest to engagement and learning, individual differences warrant serious consideration. Furthermore, it is essential for educators (e.g., teachers, parents), to understand that interest: (a) is malleable and may be supported to develop; (b) has fluctuations that are normal; (c) has a long-range linear trajectory, and (d) is physiologically hardwired, and therefore any typically functioning individuals can be expected to develop interest. Interest is critical for learning, as is acknowledgement of individual differences.
Statement of educational relevance
This article provides a discussion of the benefits of focusing on the four-phase model in which interest is conceptualized as a motivational variable that can develop. We explain that interest is both universal, as it has hardwired physiological roots, and individually varying, as it exists and develops through a person's interactions with their sociocultural context. The model charts ways in which working with individual differences can lead to meaningful engagement and learning.
{"title":"The four-phase model of interest development: Addressing individual differences","authors":"Suzanne E. Hidi , K. Ann Renninger","doi":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102865","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102865","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Although there are various approaches to the conceptualization of interest, here we address that of the four-phase model of interest development (Hidi & Renninger, 2006). Interest is universal as all humans have such experiences, and it has physiological roots. Interest also is individually varying since the triggering of interest is influenced by genetics, personal characteristics, interactions with other people, and the design of the environment. Given the importance of interest to engagement and learning, individual differences warrant serious consideration. Furthermore, it is essential for educators (e.g., teachers, parents), to understand that interest: (a) is malleable and may be supported to develop; (b) has fluctuations that are normal; (c) has a long-range linear trajectory, and (d) is physiologically hardwired, and therefore any typically functioning individuals can be expected to develop interest. Interest is critical for learning, as is acknowledgement of individual differences.</div><div><strong>Statement of educational relevance</strong></div><div>This article provides a discussion of the benefits of focusing on the four-phase model in which interest is conceptualized as a motivational variable that can develop. We explain that interest is both universal, as it has hardwired physiological roots, and individually varying, as it exists and develops through a person's interactions with their sociocultural context. The model charts ways in which working with individual differences can lead to meaningful engagement and learning.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48336,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Individual Differences","volume":"126 ","pages":"Article 102865"},"PeriodicalIF":9.0,"publicationDate":"2026-01-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145925969","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-06DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102866
Elena M. Silla , Alexandria A. Viegut , Eva Redican , Christina Areizaga Barbieri , Ilyse Resnick , Nora S. Newcombe , Nancy C. Jordan
Latent profile analysis was used to examine variation in early fraction knowledge among first graders (N = 204; Mage = 6.68 years) across nonsymbolic and symbolic representations. Three distinct profiles of fraction understanding emerged. Profile 1 exhibited strong nonsymbolic knowledge, Profile 2 demonstrated similarly strong knowledge, except for weaker performance in nonsymbolic equivalence, and Profile 3 showed generally limited understanding across most areas. However, by the end of first grade, children initially identified as Profile 2 performed comparably to those in Profile 1 on measures of equivalence. Additionally, children in both Profiles 1 and 2 showed stronger cognitive skills and higher year-end mathematics achievement than those in Profile 3. These findings suggest that understanding of nonsymbolic equivalence may develop over the course of first grade in children who otherwise demonstrate strong foundational fraction knowledge, so that an initial relative weakness in that area is not concerning.
{"title":"Profiles of fraction knowledge in first grade and their relation to cognitive and mathematical skills","authors":"Elena M. Silla , Alexandria A. Viegut , Eva Redican , Christina Areizaga Barbieri , Ilyse Resnick , Nora S. Newcombe , Nancy C. Jordan","doi":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102866","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102866","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Latent profile analysis was used to examine variation in early fraction knowledge among first graders (<em>N</em> = 204; <em>M</em><sub><em>age</em></sub> = 6.68 years) across nonsymbolic and symbolic representations. Three distinct profiles of fraction understanding emerged. Profile 1 exhibited strong nonsymbolic knowledge, Profile 2 demonstrated similarly strong knowledge, except for weaker performance in nonsymbolic equivalence, and Profile 3 showed generally limited understanding across most areas. However, by the end of first grade, children initially identified as Profile 2 performed comparably to those in Profile 1 on measures of equivalence. Additionally, children in both Profiles 1 and 2 showed stronger cognitive skills and higher year-end mathematics achievement than those in Profile 3. These findings suggest that understanding of nonsymbolic equivalence may develop over the course of first grade in children who otherwise demonstrate strong foundational fraction knowledge, so that an initial relative weakness in that area is not concerning.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48336,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Individual Differences","volume":"126 ","pages":"Article 102866"},"PeriodicalIF":9.0,"publicationDate":"2026-01-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145925970","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-02DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102864
Xiuhong Tong , Liyan Yu , Hong Li , Duo Liu , S. Hélène Deacon
Theories of reading comprehension highlight the role of syntactic awareness in developing skill in understanding text, with emerging evidence showing it predicts progress. Building on this, we investigate whether syntactic awareness influences reading comprehension differentially for simple versus complex texts, both in terms of initial level and growth rate. The study involved Grade 3 Chinese children (mean age 9.23 at Time 1), followed over three years. Data were collected on Chinese syntactic awareness, Chinese reading comprehension, and other cognitive and language factors at the start. Results show that syntactic awareness predicts the initial level of reading comprehension for both simple and complex reading materials. Critically, syntactic awareness predicts growth in reading comprehension for complex, but not for simple, materials. These findings provide much-needed empirical validation of the theoretical prediction as to the value of awareness of sentence structure in the progress that children make in understanding complex texts.
{"title":"The influence of text complexity on the relationship between syntactic awareness and reading comprehension","authors":"Xiuhong Tong , Liyan Yu , Hong Li , Duo Liu , S. Hélène Deacon","doi":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102864","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102864","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Theories of reading comprehension highlight the role of syntactic awareness in developing skill in understanding text, with emerging evidence showing it predicts progress. Building on this, we investigate whether syntactic awareness influences reading comprehension differentially for simple versus complex texts, both in terms of initial level and growth rate. The study involved Grade 3 Chinese children (mean age 9.23 at Time 1), followed over three years. Data were collected on Chinese syntactic awareness, Chinese reading comprehension, and other cognitive and language factors at the start. Results show that syntactic awareness predicts the initial level of reading comprehension for both simple and complex reading materials. Critically, syntactic awareness predicts growth in reading comprehension for complex, but not for simple, materials. These findings provide much-needed empirical validation of the theoretical prediction as to the value of awareness of sentence structure in the progress that children make in understanding complex texts.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48336,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Individual Differences","volume":"126 ","pages":"Article 102864"},"PeriodicalIF":9.0,"publicationDate":"2026-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145884809","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-30DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102861
Yuxuan Liu, Meilin Yao, Zhengru Li, Hongrui Liu
Making mistakes is essential to learning, yet some students resist them emotionally and behaviorally despite recognizing their benefits. This study focused on children's attitudes toward mistakes (including attitudinal cognition, affect, and behavior) and investigated their potential parental predictors and academic outcomes among 473 Chinese children with variable- and person-centered approaches. First, variable-centered results showed that perceived parental failure mindset was linked to the three dimensions of attitude toward mistakes that further related to academic outcomes, whereas perceived parental social comparison was primarily associated with attitudinal affect. Second, person-centered results derived from latent profile analysis showed three profiles of attitudes toward mistakes (Positive, Mildly Negative, and Ambivalent). Third, the Positive profile emerged as the most adaptive with greater academic persistence and less self-handicapping; yet both perceived parental negative failure mindset and social comparison reduced the likelihood of children belonging to this profile. Findings indicate that behavioral, cognitive, and affective responses to mistakes are not always aligned and highlight potential avenues (e.g., guiding parents' belief and parenting behaviors) to shape children's adaptive attitudes toward mistakes and further development.
Educational relevance and implication
By identifying profiles of mistake attitudes, we found that children’s thoughts and feelings about mistakes do not always align with their actual behaviors targeting mistakes. When children perceive their parents holding a failure-is-harmful mindset or frequently comparing them to others, they may develop heightened negative attitudes toward mistakes and in turn show decreased academic persistence and increased handicapping behaviors. Given these findings, considering both parental belief systems and individual mistake attitudes may be beneficial when exploring strategies to promote children's effective learning. Parents may be encouraged to embrace adaptive beliefs and avoid negative parenting practices; furthermore, both parents and teachers may consider observing how children respond to mistakes and attempt to normalize them as part of learning.
{"title":"Children's attitudes toward mistakes: Profiles and associations with parental predictors and academic-related outcomes","authors":"Yuxuan Liu, Meilin Yao, Zhengru Li, Hongrui Liu","doi":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102861","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102861","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Making mistakes is essential to learning, yet some students resist them emotionally and behaviorally despite recognizing their benefits. This study focused on children's attitudes toward mistakes (including attitudinal cognition, affect, and behavior) and investigated their potential parental predictors and academic outcomes among 473 Chinese children with variable- and person-centered approaches. First, variable-centered results showed that perceived parental failure mindset was linked to the three dimensions of attitude toward mistakes that further related to academic outcomes, whereas perceived parental social comparison was primarily associated with attitudinal affect. Second, person-centered results derived from latent profile analysis showed three profiles of attitudes toward mistakes (<em>Positive</em>, <em>Mildly Negative</em>, and <em>Ambivalent</em>). Third, the <em>Positive</em> profile emerged as the most adaptive with greater academic persistence and less self-handicapping; yet both perceived parental negative failure mindset and social comparison reduced the likelihood of children belonging to this profile. Findings indicate that behavioral, cognitive, and affective responses to mistakes are not always aligned and highlight potential avenues (e.g., guiding parents' belief and parenting behaviors) to shape children's adaptive attitudes toward mistakes and further development.</div></div><div><h3>Educational relevance and implication</h3><div>By identifying profiles of mistake attitudes, we found that children’s thoughts and feelings about mistakes do not always align with their actual behaviors targeting mistakes. When children perceive their parents holding a failure-is-harmful mindset or frequently comparing them to others, they may develop heightened negative attitudes toward mistakes and in turn show decreased academic persistence and increased handicapping behaviors. Given these findings, considering both parental belief systems and individual mistake attitudes may be beneficial when exploring strategies to promote children's effective learning. Parents may be encouraged to embrace adaptive beliefs and avoid negative parenting practices; furthermore, both parents and teachers may consider observing how children respond to mistakes and attempt to normalize them as part of learning.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48336,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Individual Differences","volume":"126 ","pages":"Article 102861"},"PeriodicalIF":9.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145884810","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-29DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102859
Paul L. Morgan , Eric Hengyu Hu
We investigated the early onset, over-time stability, and explanatory factors of racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics and science difficulties during elementary school. Analyses of a population-based longitudinal cohort (N = 10,472) followed from kindergarten to fifth grade indicated that an average of 11 % to 21 % of Black, Hispanic, and American Indian students versus 4 % to 8 % of White or Asian students displayed mathematics or science difficulties while attending U.S. elementary schools. The percentages of Black students displaying mathematics or science difficulties increased from kindergarten to fifth grade from about 15 % to 25 % (ps < .001). Black, Hispanic, and American Indian students were more likely to display repeated mathematics or science difficulties. Racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics and science difficulties during elementary school were substantially or fully explained by antecedent, opportunity, and propensity factors in kindergarten. Particularly strong explanatory factors were domain-specific and -general academic achievement and working memory. Efforts to address racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics and science difficulties may need to begin by kindergarten.
Educational relevance and implications statement
We investigated the early onset, over-time stability, and explanatory factors of racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics or science difficulties during elementary school.
Results indicated practically and statistically significant differences in the relative percentages of Black, Hispanic, and American Indian students displaying mathematics or science difficulties. Black, Hispanic, and American Indian students also were more likely to experience repeated mathematics or science difficulties. Initially observed racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics or science difficulties including repeatedly over time were substantially or fully explained by antecedent, opportunity, and propensity factors in kindergarten, particularly domain-specific and -general academic achievement and working memory. Our regression models suggest that policies and practices successfully targeting these explanatory factors may help to reduce or eliminate racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics and science difficulties during elementary school. Doing so may result in higher rates of educational attainment, socio-emotional adjustment, mental health, and adulthood wellbeing including by students of color.
{"title":"Racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics and science difficulties during elementary school","authors":"Paul L. Morgan , Eric Hengyu Hu","doi":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102859","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102859","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>We investigated the early onset, over-time stability, and explanatory factors of racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics and science difficulties during elementary school. Analyses of a population-based longitudinal cohort (<em>N =</em> 10,472) followed from kindergarten to fifth grade indicated that an average of 11 % to 21 % of Black, Hispanic, and American Indian students versus 4 % to 8 % of White or Asian students displayed mathematics or science difficulties while attending U.S. elementary schools. The percentages of Black students displaying mathematics or science difficulties increased from kindergarten to fifth grade from about 15 % to 25 % (<em>p</em>s < .001). Black, Hispanic, and American Indian students were more likely to display repeated mathematics or science difficulties. Racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics and science difficulties during elementary school were substantially or fully explained by antecedent, opportunity, and propensity factors in kindergarten. Particularly strong explanatory factors were domain-specific and -general academic achievement and working memory. Efforts to address racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics and science difficulties may need to begin by kindergarten.</div></div><div><h3>Educational relevance and implications statement</h3><div>We investigated the early onset, over-time stability, and explanatory factors of racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics or science difficulties during elementary school.</div><div>Results indicated practically and statistically significant differences in the relative percentages of Black, Hispanic, and American Indian students displaying mathematics or science difficulties. Black, Hispanic, and American Indian students also were more likely to experience repeated mathematics or science difficulties. Initially observed racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics or science difficulties including repeatedly over time were substantially or fully explained by antecedent, opportunity, and propensity factors in kindergarten, particularly domain-specific and -general academic achievement and working memory. Our regression models suggest that policies and practices successfully targeting these explanatory factors may help to reduce or eliminate racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics and science difficulties during elementary school. Doing so may result in higher rates of educational attainment, socio-emotional adjustment, mental health, and adulthood wellbeing including by students of color.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48336,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Individual Differences","volume":"126 ","pages":"Article 102859"},"PeriodicalIF":9.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145884722","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-24DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102862
Andreas Gegenfurtner, Aldin Alijagic, Sylvia Gabel, Özün Keskin
The COVID-19 pandemic led schools and universities worldwide to rapidly shift from traditional, in-person classes to synchronous online learning through webinar platforms such as Zoom, WebEx, and Microsoft Teams. This meta-analysis examined 31 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) involving 3823 learners to better understand how effective synchronous online programs are for supporting both affective outcomes (such as attitudes, satisfaction, self-efficacy, and interest) and cognitive outcomes (including declarative knowledge and procedural skills). Overall, the findings show that synchronous online learning is more effective than asynchronous online and face-to-face education in improving both learners' affect and their learning performance. The strongest positive effects of webinars appeared when they were compared to waitlist groups and asynchronous courses, and when affective outcomes focused on learners' self-efficacy beliefs. The study also found a significant link between affective and cognitive outcomes. Finally, we highlight practical implications for instructional design and suggest directions for future research on webinar-based learning.
{"title":"Synchronous online learning supports cognitive and affective outcomes more than traditional face-to-face and asynchronous online education: A meta-analysis of webinars","authors":"Andreas Gegenfurtner, Aldin Alijagic, Sylvia Gabel, Özün Keskin","doi":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102862","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102862","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The COVID-19 pandemic led schools and universities worldwide to rapidly shift from traditional, in-person classes to synchronous online learning through webinar platforms such as Zoom, WebEx, and Microsoft Teams. This meta-analysis examined 31 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) involving 3823 learners to better understand how effective synchronous online programs are for supporting both affective outcomes (such as attitudes, satisfaction, self-efficacy, and interest) and cognitive outcomes (including declarative knowledge and procedural skills). Overall, the findings show that synchronous online learning is more effective than asynchronous online and face-to-face education in improving both learners' affect and their learning performance. The strongest positive effects of webinars appeared when they were compared to waitlist groups and asynchronous courses, and when affective outcomes focused on learners' self-efficacy beliefs. The study also found a significant link between affective and cognitive outcomes. Finally, we highlight practical implications for instructional design and suggest directions for future research on webinar-based learning.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48336,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Individual Differences","volume":"126 ","pages":"Article 102862"},"PeriodicalIF":9.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145841304","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-24DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102860
Diana Raufelder , Olga Steinberg , Tuomo Virtanen , Valtteri Eskola , Kati Vasalampi
The Self-System Model of Motivational Development (SSMMD) posits that contextual supports and self-beliefs shape students' school engagement, which in turn predicts educational outcomes. This research examined (1) the interplay of social support, academic self-concept and with school engagement change in late adolescence, and (2) the interplay of socio-motivational support, academic self-concept, and need satisfaction with change in school engagement in middle adolescence. Study 1 used data from 3585 Finnish students (MageT1 = 15.55, SD = 2.46; 53.6 % girls). Study 2 analyzed data from 779 German students (MageT1 = 13.09, SD = 0.50; 57 % girls).
Latent Change Modelling (LCM) evidences a decline in school engagement, associated with math self-concept and teacher support (Study 1), and academic self-concept (Study 2). School engagement predicted school completion (Study 1).
The studies provide converging evidence for developmental patterns, predicted by SSMMD and highlight the role of academic self-concept and teacher-student relations for school engagement.
Educational relevance and implications
The findings from the two studies outline several implications for educational practice and policy. In line with the theoretical perspective outlined by SSMMD, interventions aimed at fostering school engagement before critical school transitions should address both contextual and self-related factors. The results of Study 1 show, that especially in upper secondary education, teacher support may be more beneficial for proximal engagement rather than sustaining longer-term changes in the intensity of student's involvement with school and need to be complemented by academic self-concept interventions. Also, it is particularly important to strengthen domain-specific mathematic self-concepts of students, that emphasizes the role of STEM and teaching methods used in STEM in upper secondary schools. In other words, professional development should equip teachers not only with good communication and motivation skills, but also with skills that would enable them to create academic self-concept-supportive environments while addressing students' individual needs. The converging evidence from Study 2 shows that decline in school engagement is likely to occur throughout all stages of adolescence and in both cultural contexts, but interventions may need to de tailored to the particular developmental stages, and address different facets of academic self-concept. Overall, the nuanced roles of social support and academic self-concept suggest that individualized support and reinforcement of self-beliefs are essential for optimizing educational outcomes during critical school transitions.
{"title":"Engaging students in school: Two studies on the benefits of social support and high self-beliefs","authors":"Diana Raufelder , Olga Steinberg , Tuomo Virtanen , Valtteri Eskola , Kati Vasalampi","doi":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102860","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102860","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Self-System Model of Motivational Development (SSMMD) posits that contextual supports and self-beliefs shape students' school engagement, which in turn predicts educational outcomes. This research examined (1) the interplay of social support, academic self-concept and with school engagement change in late adolescence, and (2) the interplay of socio-motivational support, academic self-concept, and need satisfaction with change in school engagement in middle adolescence. Study 1 used data from 3585 Finnish students (<em>M</em><sub><em>ageT1</em></sub> = 15.55, <em>SD</em> = 2.46; 53.6 % girls). Study 2 analyzed data from 779 German students (<em>M</em><sub><em>ageT1</em></sub> = 13.09, <em>SD</em> = 0.50; 57 % girls).</div><div>Latent Change Modelling (LCM) evidences a decline in school engagement, associated with math self-concept and teacher support (Study 1), and academic self-concept (Study 2). School engagement predicted school completion (Study 1).</div><div>The studies provide converging evidence for developmental patterns, predicted by SSMMD and highlight the role of academic self-concept and teacher-student relations for school engagement.</div></div><div><h3>Educational relevance and implications</h3><div>The findings from the two studies outline several implications for educational practice and policy. In line with the theoretical perspective outlined by SSMMD, interventions aimed at fostering school engagement before critical school transitions should address both contextual and self-related factors. The results of Study 1 show, that especially in upper secondary education, teacher support may be more beneficial for proximal engagement rather than sustaining longer-term changes in the intensity of student's involvement with school and need to be complemented by academic self-concept interventions. Also, it is particularly important to strengthen domain-specific mathematic self-concepts of students, that emphasizes the role of STEM and teaching methods used in STEM in upper secondary schools. In other words, professional development should equip teachers not only with good communication and motivation skills, but also with skills that would enable them to create academic self-concept-supportive environments while addressing students' individual needs. The converging evidence from Study 2 shows that decline in school engagement is likely to occur throughout all stages of adolescence and in both cultural contexts, but interventions may need to de tailored to the particular developmental stages, and address different facets of academic self-concept. Overall, the nuanced roles of social support and academic self-concept suggest that individualized support and reinforcement of self-beliefs are essential for optimizing educational outcomes during critical school transitions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48336,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Individual Differences","volume":"126 ","pages":"Article 102860"},"PeriodicalIF":9.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145841305","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-18DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102806
Sophia C. Weissgerber , Ralf Rummer
Lehmann et al. (2016) investigated working memory capacity (WMC) as a boundary condition for disfluency in an Aptitude-Treatment-Interaction-Study (Metacognition and Learning, 11, 89–105) and, confirming predictions, found that only learners with higher WMC benefited from disfluency in retention and comprehension. Remarkably, retention with fluent texts was similar across WMC levels, while, counterintuitively, higher WMC descriptively predicted lower comprehension. This data pattern underlying their significant interactions is noteworthy and based on a small sample. Due to researchers' degrees of freedom in analytical decisions, we explored the replicability and analytical robustness of the primary findings by modeling different subjective choices in the analytical approach via multiverse analysis. In our (pre-registered) direct replication in the laboratory (N = 220) disfluency, WMC, and their interaction showed null effects on retention, comprehension, and transfer across all multiverse specifications, including when WMC was operationalized via OSPAN. This reflects a consistent lack of (analytical) replicability.
Educational relevance statement
A proposed, cost-effective intervention to enhance learning is based on perceptual disfluency, which posits that harder-to-read fonts improve learning and memory. However, evidence supporting this font disfluency effect is mixed, leading researchers to propose conditions under which it might work.
Lehmann et al. (2016) suggested that harder-to-read fonts only aid learning when paired with sufficient working memory capacity (WMC). Their findings imply that disfluency might not benefit everyone universally but could help those with higher WMC.
If the disfluency effect were universal, it would always improve learning without exceptions. But if it depends on specific conditions like WMC, it might only benefit certain learners. If research shows that disfluency has no overall benefit, it would suggest that using harder-to-read fonts in education is ineffective.
Our study found no evidence that font disfluency improves learning overall, nor did we find support for a more limited effect confined to learners with higher working memory capacity. Taken together, these findings suggest that the disfluency effect is unreliable and should not be recommended for educational purposes. Given the inconsistent results in the literature and the lack of robust evidence, educators should be cautious about relying on font disfluency as a tool for improving learning – despite its allure in terms of scalability due to easy applicability.
{"title":"A multiverse lack of replication for working memory capacity as moderator of the perceptual disfluency effect","authors":"Sophia C. Weissgerber , Ralf Rummer","doi":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102806","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102806","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Lehmann et al. (2016) investigated working memory capacity (WMC) as a boundary condition for disfluency in an Aptitude-Treatment-Interaction-Study (<em>Metacognition and Learning, 11</em>, 89–105) and, confirming predictions, found that only learners with higher WMC benefited from disfluency in retention and comprehension. Remarkably, retention with fluent texts was similar across WMC levels, while, counterintuitively, higher WMC descriptively predicted lower comprehension. This data pattern underlying their significant interactions is noteworthy and based on a small sample. Due to researchers' degrees of freedom in analytical decisions, we explored the replicability and analytical robustness of the primary findings by modeling different subjective choices in the analytical approach via multiverse analysis. In our (pre-registered) direct replication in the laboratory (<em>N</em> = 220) disfluency, WMC, and their interaction showed null effects on retention, comprehension, and transfer across all multiverse specifications, including when WMC was operationalized via OSPAN. This reflects a consistent lack of (analytical) replicability.</div></div><div><h3>Educational relevance statement</h3><div>A proposed, cost-effective intervention to enhance learning is based on perceptual disfluency, which posits that harder-to-read fonts improve learning and memory. However, evidence supporting this font disfluency effect is mixed, leading researchers to propose conditions under which it might work.</div><div>Lehmann et al. (2016) suggested that harder-to-read fonts only aid learning when paired with sufficient working memory capacity (WMC). Their findings imply that disfluency might not benefit everyone universally but could help those with higher WMC.</div><div>If the disfluency effect were universal, it would always improve learning without exceptions. But if it depends on specific conditions like WMC, it might only benefit certain learners. If research shows that disfluency has no overall benefit, it would suggest that using harder-to-read fonts in education is ineffective.</div><div>Our study found no evidence that font disfluency improves learning overall, nor did we find support for a more limited effect confined to learners with higher working memory capacity. Taken together, these findings suggest that the disfluency effect is unreliable and should not be recommended for educational purposes. Given the inconsistent results in the literature and the lack of robust evidence, educators should be cautious about relying on font disfluency as a tool for improving learning – despite its allure in terms of scalability due to easy applicability.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48336,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Individual Differences","volume":"126 ","pages":"Article 102806"},"PeriodicalIF":9.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145792029","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-15DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102846
Natalie Foster , Jessica L. Holmes , Emma Linsenmayer , Nathan Zoanetti , Huseyin Yildiz
This paper describes the development and validation processes involved in defining evidence rules for computational problem-solving, one of two aspects measured in the PISA 2025 Learning in the Digital World (LDW) assessment. We developed two theory-driven, rule-based scoring approaches – the Expert Strategy and Quality Marker approach – and applied them to a relatively complex and open computational problem-solving task targeting students' capacity to decompose a problem, recognise patterns and create generalisable solutions. The Expert Strategy approach extracts features of students' code aligned with an optimal task solution, whereas the Quality Marker approach rewards incremental progress towards the task goal and in applying target practices. We compare the results of the two approaches with each other and the results of a paired comparison validation study involving experts in the field of programming and computational thinking. We reflect on the practical implications of the results for PISA 2025 and provide directions for applying the methods to other task-types.
Educational relevance statement
Assessment of students via complex, interactive and open-ended tasks in technology-rich environments, such as visual programming tasks, present new challenges to assessors, who need to account for the infinite solution space and students' individual strategies for solving these problems. In large-scale and/or international assessment, challenges are compounded by a heterogeneous testing population, in terms of cultural and educational backgrounds and experience with digital tools and visual coding, and by the prohibitive costs of human scoring. Sophisticated automated scoring models are needed that can validly interpret evidence about students' skills and that can flexibly accommodate individual differences in solution pathways. This study contributes new knowledge to existing literature in educational and learning sciences on assessment design by developing and validating sophisticated rule-based scoring approaches that provide granular information about student abilities in computational problem-solving, that are appropriate for both large-scale summative and formative contexts, and that can handle different approaches to solving open tasks. Our approaches are supported by the results of an empirical validation exercise (a paired comparison study) involving experts from the field of programming and computational thinking.
{"title":"Developing rule-based scoring methods that capture student progress in computational problem-solving in open, interactive tasks","authors":"Natalie Foster , Jessica L. Holmes , Emma Linsenmayer , Nathan Zoanetti , Huseyin Yildiz","doi":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102846","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102846","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper describes the development and validation processes involved in defining evidence rules for computational problem-solving, one of two aspects measured in the PISA 2025 Learning in the Digital World (LDW) assessment. We developed two theory-driven, rule-based scoring approaches – the Expert Strategy and Quality Marker approach – and applied them to a relatively complex and open computational problem-solving task targeting students' capacity to decompose a problem, recognise patterns and create generalisable solutions. The Expert Strategy approach extracts features of students' code aligned with an optimal task solution, whereas the Quality Marker approach rewards incremental progress towards the task goal and in applying target practices. We compare the results of the two approaches with each other and the results of a paired comparison validation study involving experts in the field of programming and computational thinking. We reflect on the practical implications of the results for PISA 2025 and provide directions for applying the methods to other task-types.</div></div><div><h3>Educational relevance statement</h3><div>Assessment of students via complex, interactive and open-ended tasks in technology-rich environments, such as visual programming tasks, present new challenges to assessors, who need to account for the infinite solution space and students' individual strategies for solving these problems. In large-scale and/or international assessment, challenges are compounded by a heterogeneous testing population, in terms of cultural and educational backgrounds and experience with digital tools and visual coding, and by the prohibitive costs of human scoring. Sophisticated automated scoring models are needed that can validly interpret evidence about students' skills and that can flexibly accommodate individual differences in solution pathways. This study contributes new knowledge to existing literature in educational and learning sciences on assessment design by developing and validating sophisticated rule-based scoring approaches that provide granular information about student abilities in computational problem-solving, that are appropriate for both large-scale summative and formative contexts, and that can handle different approaches to solving open tasks. Our approaches are supported by the results of an empirical validation exercise (a paired comparison study) involving experts from the field of programming and computational thinking.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48336,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Individual Differences","volume":"126 ","pages":"Article 102846"},"PeriodicalIF":9.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145791429","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-15DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102850
Sophie von der Mülbe , Kristina Stockinger , Anne Scheunemann , Lena S. Kegel , Jens Fleischer , Detlev Leutner , Joachim Wirth , Carola Grunschel , Markus Dresel
While prior research shows that motivational regulation (MR) predicts study motivation and academic success, its relations with students' subjective well-being (SWB) are not yet well understood. It can be theoretically assumed that MR and SWB are reciprocally linked over time, but longitudinal evidence is lacking. To advance our understanding of these associations, we conducted a three-wave longitudinal study with 527 university students across one semester. We included frequency of strategy use, situation-specific fit, and application quality as MR components. Results from cross-lagged panel analyses indicate that high SWB serves as a resource for applying MR strategies frequently and with a high quality, while situation-specific fit and application quality can boost SWB over time. These findings provide insight into the interplay between MR and SWB over time, illuminate the role of SWB as a MR precondition, and can help to develop support measures fostering study success and health in higher education.
Educational relevance and implications statement
This longitudinal study advances our understanding of how three core components of motivational regulation as well as students' overall tendency to engage in motivational regulation are linked with students' subjective well-being over time. The results indicate that high subjective well-being serves as a resource for applying motivational regulation strategies frequently and with a high quality. The situation-specific fit between regulation strategies that are used and the motivational problems they target, and the application quality of strategy use, in turn, can boost subjective well-being over time. Students' overall tendency to engage in motivational regulation has a positive impact on subjective well-being over time, and vice versa. In conclusion, developing integrative support programs that foster motivational regulation competencies (e.g., how to select suitable motivational regulation strategies and how to implement these strategies well) as well as skills to master emotional challenges while studying is a valuable pathway for fostering students' learning, success, and health.
{"title":"Motivated and feeling good? Reciprocal relations between motivational regulation and student well-being over one semester","authors":"Sophie von der Mülbe , Kristina Stockinger , Anne Scheunemann , Lena S. Kegel , Jens Fleischer , Detlev Leutner , Joachim Wirth , Carola Grunschel , Markus Dresel","doi":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102850","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102850","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>While prior research shows that motivational regulation (MR) predicts study motivation and academic success, its relations with students' subjective well-being (SWB) are not yet well understood. It can be theoretically assumed that MR and SWB are reciprocally linked over time, but longitudinal evidence is lacking. To advance our understanding of these associations, we conducted a three-wave longitudinal study with 527 university students across one semester. We included frequency of strategy use, situation-specific fit, and application quality as MR components. Results from cross-lagged panel analyses indicate that high SWB serves as a resource for applying MR strategies frequently and with a high quality, while situation-specific fit and application quality can boost SWB over time. These findings provide insight into the interplay between MR and SWB over time, illuminate the role of SWB as a MR precondition, and can help to develop support measures fostering study success and health in higher education.</div></div><div><h3>Educational relevance and implications statement</h3><div>This longitudinal study advances our understanding of how three core components of motivational regulation as well as students' overall tendency to engage in motivational regulation are linked with students' subjective well-being over time. The results indicate that high subjective well-being serves as a resource for applying motivational regulation strategies frequently and with a high quality. The situation-specific fit between regulation strategies that are used and the motivational problems they target, and the application quality of strategy use, in turn, can boost subjective well-being over time. Students' overall tendency to engage in motivational regulation has a positive impact on subjective well-being over time, and vice versa. In conclusion, developing integrative support programs that foster motivational regulation competencies (e.g., how to select suitable motivational regulation strategies and how to implement these strategies well) as well as skills to master emotional challenges while studying is a valuable pathway for fostering students' learning, success, and health.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48336,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Individual Differences","volume":"126 ","pages":"Article 102850"},"PeriodicalIF":9.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145792028","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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