We investigated the early onset, over-time stability, and explanatory factors of racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics and science difficulties during elementary school. Analyses of a population-based longitudinal cohort (N = 10,472) followed from kindergarten to fifth grade indicated that an average of 11 % to 21 % of Black, Hispanic, and American Indian students versus 4 % to 8 % of White or Asian students displayed mathematics or science difficulties while attending U.S. elementary schools. The percentages of Black students displaying mathematics or science difficulties increased from kindergarten to fifth grade from about 15 % to 25 % (ps < .001). Black, Hispanic, and American Indian students were more likely to display repeated mathematics or science difficulties. Racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics and science difficulties during elementary school were substantially or fully explained by antecedent, opportunity, and propensity factors in kindergarten. Particularly strong explanatory factors were domain-specific and -general academic achievement and working memory. Efforts to address racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics and science difficulties may need to begin by kindergarten.
Educational relevance and implications statement
We investigated the early onset, over-time stability, and explanatory factors of racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics or science difficulties during elementary school.
Results indicated practically and statistically significant differences in the relative percentages of Black, Hispanic, and American Indian students displaying mathematics or science difficulties. Black, Hispanic, and American Indian students also were more likely to experience repeated mathematics or science difficulties. Initially observed racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics or science difficulties including repeatedly over time were substantially or fully explained by antecedent, opportunity, and propensity factors in kindergarten, particularly domain-specific and -general academic achievement and working memory. Our regression models suggest that policies and practices successfully targeting these explanatory factors may help to reduce or eliminate racial and ethnic differences in the risks for mathematics and science difficulties during elementary school. Doing so may result in higher rates of educational attainment, socio-emotional adjustment, mental health, and adulthood wellbeing including by students of color.
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