Sex Roles最新文献

Developmental psychologists have studied how toys shape gender schemas but have not focused exclusively on sport toys. Given persistent gender gaps in sport participation, it is important to understand how gendered meanings about sport are communicated and perceived through all kinds of play. This mixed methods research examined such meanings attached to sport toys using a content analysis and a survey. In Study 1, a content and descriptive analysis of toy listings (N = 107) on retail websites revealed that most toy names lacked explicit gender labels. However, toys were more likely to display masculine color schemes and boys outnumbered girls 2-to-1 in photographs of children playing with the toys. Boys were also depicted as more actively engaged, especially with highly physical sports. In Study 2, a correlational analysis of survey responses from 530 participants indicated that adults primarily viewed sport toys as masculine, though they saw dolls, aesthetic toys, and pink toys as appropriate for girls. Aggressive sport toys were linked to boys even when they were pink, indicating limits to the impact of implicit gender markers. Together, both studies show that sports toys are still viewed as (mostly) for boys and suggest that these messages may communicate gender stereotypes about sport. Evidence-based recommendations for toy sellers regarding toy color and gender representation are included, as is advice for toy purchasers who want to encourage gender inclusive play and flexible gender schemas.

Women have made strides in male-dominated sports but still face obstacles from gender biases and lack of diversity. Particularly in strength sports, the underrepresentation of women and lack of research on their lived experiences as athletes and coaches is notable. This study investigated the experiences of 21 women athletes and four coaches aged 18–44 in the strength sports of Olympic weightlifting, powerlifting, CrossFit, and strongman. Results showed that women athletes struggled with body image, societal expectations, gender bias and diversity, and male interactions, even as they challenged gender norms and established their presence in these male-dominated sports. Athletes’ experiences aligned with past research, but also included powerful expression of what it means to be a strong woman despite societal pressure. Women coaches also report career progression and equal employment challenges and stressed the importance of women’s representation and inclusion at all levels of these sports. Findings also indicated that while women’s performance demonstrates shifting norms for strength in these sports, more work is needed to overcome continued gender bias and to achieve equal employment opportunities for coaches. National sport governing bodies should review policy to support inclusion at all levels, and provide resources, mentorship, and training opportunities to improve accessibility to women coaches and athletes at all levels.

Recently imposed reproductive rights restrictions have triggered widespread pro-choice protests in countries like Poland and the U.S. This study, conducted online in Poland following the 22 October 2020 decision of the Polish Constitutional Tribunal to strengthen restrictions on legal access to abortion, investigated the motivations of 939 Poles (55% women) to participate in pro-choice protests. We examined how different aspects of gender collective self-esteem and feminist identification were associated with reactance to the freedom restrictions imposed by the abortion ban and with engagement in pro-choice protests among women and men. We found that for both genders, weaker gender identification was associated with higher feminist identification, greater reactance to the abortion ban, and increased involvement in pro-choice protests. However, we observed gender differences in the motivations to participate. Women who perceived themselves as valued members of their gender group, had negative personal views about their gender or felt their gender was undervalued by society, were more likely to engage in pro-choice activism. Men who held negative personal views about their gender or felt their gender was valued by society were more likely to engage in pro-choice protests. This study adds novel predictors to the literature on engagement in pro-choice collective action, offering practical insights into which aspects of gender collective self-esteem should be targeted to enhance feminist identification and support for the pro-choice movement.

Objectification of women is heightened during the reproductive years and is associated with a myriad of adverse outcomes. Yet, little research has examined the impact of self-objectification among postpartum women and whether potential effects can be ameliorated. The current study investigated the association between self-objectification and well-being among women who had given birth in the last three years, and whether self-compassion moderated or mediated the link. As hypothesized, women (N = 162) higher in self-objectification reported greater body shame, appearance anxiety, depressive symptoms, and disordered eating, and lower life satisfaction, self-esteem, and more negative experience being a mother, whereas women higher in self-compassion reported more positive outcomes on these measures. Self-compassion mediated the association between self-objectification and poorer well-being on most outcomes. Unexpectedly, neither self-objectification nor self-compassion were associated with sexual dysfunction or breastfeeding confidence. The findings suggest that although women might be prone to self-objectification and body shame during the postpartum period, self-compassion explains this relation and potentially holds promise for disrupting negative experiences during the transition to motherhood.

Gender-based technology-facilitated violence and abuse (GBTFVA) is a common experience for those engaging with digital technologies in their everyday lives. To better understand why GBTFVA persists, it is necessary to understand the false beliefs and cultural narratives that enable and sustain them. Drawing on the literature on rape myths, this paper explores the prevalence of seven gender-based online violence myths among Canadian men. To achieve this, we adapted the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance (IRMA) (Payne et al., in J Research in Personality 33:27–68, 1999) to assess GBTFVA, and surveyed 1,297 Canadian men between 18 and 30 years old on their GBTFVA beliefs. Our results show that GBTFVA myths and cultural narratives are prevalent across participants, though endorsement levels vary. Four myths were more strongly endorsed: It Wasn’t Really Gender-Based Online Abuse, He Didn’t Mean To, Gender-Based Online Abuse Is a Deviant Event, and She Lied. Overall, these findings help to name and thus begin to address the narratives that sustain and perpetuate gender-based online violence.

Organizations have started more progressively using and offering family benefits including parental leaves to address the issues of balancing work and family life. Although such leaves are fundamental for supporting, attracting, and retaining women, we examine whether such leaves may also inadvertently affect women’s careers in occupations that overly value masculine traits, unless managed carefully. Drawing on the literature on gender stereotypes (micro factors) and occupation gender type (macro factors), we argue that longer (vs. shorter) parental leaves negatively affect women’s work outcomes (i.e., annual income, salary recommendation, hireability, and leadership effectiveness) in men-dominated but not in women-dominated occupations because it lowers perceptions of women’s agency. We find support for our hypotheses across three studies in the Australian context with an archival data set and two experiments. Our work shows that men-dominated organizational structures reinforce traditional gender stereotypes, whereas such reinforcement does not happen in women-dominated organizational structures. Our research equips leaders and organizations with insights into the unintended negative consequences of parental leave for women. This understanding serves as a crucial first step in developing strategies and programs to mitigate these effects, thereby supporting women in men-dominated occupations and fostering more inclusive and healthy workplaces.

Institutions of higher education (IHEs) often disseminate risk reduction strategies intended to reduce sexual assault victimization and/or perpetration. This research examined the content and context of publicly available risk reduction strategies offered by a nationally representative sample of 4-year IHEs in the United States (N = 242; public and private not-for-profit institutions, Historically Black Colleges and Universities, and Tribal institutions). We identified strategies for 102 (42%) IHEs. Using a sociocognitive approach to critical discourse analysis, we examined the specific messages conveyed via IHE risk reduction strategies, how larger sociocultural discourses and power structures were reproduced or reinforced, and the potential implications for readers (i.e., university students). Nearly all IHEs directed their strategies toward potential victims. These strategies were broad in scope, imploring behavioral modification and restriction (e.g., never be alone), and requiring specific responses to sexual assault (e.g., physical resistance). Fewer IHEs directed their strategies toward potential perpetrators; these strategies were narrower in scope, focusing on sexual consent. Overall, strategies reproduced rape myths (e.g., stranger-perpetrated assault is common) and positioned potential victims as uniquely responsible for preventing sexual assault—messaging that may be particularly harmful when disseminated by powerful institutions responsible for sexual assault prevention and response. IHEs should assess the utility of risk reduction strategies and, if retained, revise their strategies to counter harmful sexual assault messaging.

Media representations of sexuality can play a relevant role in the development of gender stereotypes and sexual learning processes. In the current pre-registered study, we examined the representation of sexuality in content on Netflix, a dominant force in global mass media consumption. We coded 271 mixed-gender sexual scenes across seven highly popular Netflix series for orgasm portrayal, depiction of sexual behaviors, including clitoral stimulation, and gendered sexual scripts (i.e., initiation, control, and expression of desires). Our results revealed a nuanced picture of women’s sexual pleasure representation. Women’s orgasms were depicted less frequently than men’s, although orgasm portrayal was generally rare. Sexual behaviors were mostly limited to penile-vaginal intercourse, though cunnilingus was depicted more frequently than fellatio. Regarding gendered sexual scripts, women were portrayed as equally sexually agentic as men, initiating sexual encounters, taking control, and expressing their needs and desires. Our findings indicate that this content simultaneously reinforces and challenges gender stereotypes related to sexual experiences, highlighting the need for sexual educators to critically address the realism of mainstream media portrayals to foster a nuanced understanding of sexuality and pleasure.

Over the last few years there has been an increase in anti-trans rhetoric and violence towards transgender individuals, the consequences of which continue to adversely affect transgender people’s lives. Given these societal ramifications, it is crucial to explore how transprejudice (prejudice against transgender people) might be ameliorated. Research within social psychology has repeatedly shown intergroup contact to reduce various forms of outgroup prejudice, but little extant research has tested this association for prejudice related to transgender identity. We conducted three cross-sectional studies which tested the relation between contact (quantity and quality) with transgender people, trans-related knowledge (i.e., participants’ self-reported level of knowledge about experiences of transgender people), and transprejudice (cognitive and affective). Across the three studies, we found that contact quantity and contact quality significantly mediated the negative relationship between knowledge and transprejudice (although contact quality was a more consistent mediator). Those with more trans-related knowledge had more frequent and better-quality contact with trans people, and in turn showed less prejudice towards transgender people. We found less consistent support for an alternative mediation model with prior knowledge mediating the contact to transprejudice link. These findings demonstrate the importance of the role of both knowledge about and contact with transgender people as a means of transprejudice reduction, with wide-reaching implications for creating environments that are diverse, equitable, and inclusive.

The current study examined whether congruence with gender stereotypes is associated with support for online feminist campaigns. In Study 1 (N_tweets = 510,000), we investigated how two real-world movements (i.e., #metoo and #sexstrike) were viewed in terms of adhering to the traditional feminine stereotype of high warmth/communion and low competence/agency, as per language used in the tweets posted within each campaign. We found that the #metoo movement was characterised by more communal and less agentic content than #sexstrike. In Study 2 (N = 195), when presented with descriptions of the movements modelled after #metoo and #sexstrike, participants associated the #metoo-like campaign with more feminine (e.g., community orientation) and less masculine concepts (e.g., rebelliousness), which, in turn, translated to greater declared support for the campaign. In Study 3 (N = 446), conducted in a more controlled and context-independent setting, we once again observed the link between the gender stereotypes attached to feminist movements and the support they received. We also found that this effect was independent of the effect of perceiving movements as violating social norms. Controlling for feminist identification, political conservatism, and gender system justification did not affect the pattern of results. Uncovering these stereotype-related effects on support for feminist movements furthers understanding of the strategies that might be used in the fight for gender equality.