Sex Roles最新文献

The social construction of pregnancy emphasizes the mother’s responsibility for the developing fetus. Hence, certain activities, such as participation in competitive sport, are often constructed as inappropriate during pregnancy. While expert opinion tends to stress caution, the diversity of athlete mothers’ experiences challenge these dominant discourses. Less is known about how peers and other stakeholders in sport view the participation of pregnant athletes. Knowledge of such attitudes is essential to understanding the position of women in a specific society and the barriers to their autonomy. Hence, we examined survey responses from different sport stakeholders (N = 540) in Finland. Drawing on relational dialectics theory (Baxter, L. A. (2011). Voicing relationships. Sage.), we used contrapuntal analysis to identify different discourses on the compatibility of pregnancy and sport, and their interplay. Three discourses were identified: an equality discourse, which emphasizes that sport belongs to everyone, and that pregnant people should be accepted and supported in sporting environments; a responsibility discourse, which constructs pregnancy as fragility and sport as potentially dangerous for the athlete and the fetus; and an incompatibility discourse, which constructs pregnancy as a disease and unacceptable in sporting environments. Our analysis shows that medicalized, authoritative knowledge is the master strategy used to keep women out of male social spaces during pregnancy. The findings of our study highlight the ongoing struggle for reproductive justice in a patriarchal world order. To advance women’s position in society and support the autonomy of all individuals, viable professional guidelines and organizational policies must be formulated and applied.

A dominant narrative among men’s rights activists (MRAs) is that rape culture does not exist. Despite statistical evidence that men are more likely to be sexually assaulted than wrongfully accused of assault, false rape allegations are the most frequently discussed topic on MRA forums and websites. In this study, we analyzed comments about false rape allegations posted to r/MensRights, a popular MRA forum. Just as the larger MRA movement emerged as a reactionary counterbalance to a feminist movement that MRAs believe has purportedly achieved equality, we found that MRAs construct a culture of false rape allegations to counterbalance a purportedly non-existent rape culture. Using a grounded theory approach to examine the narratives deployed by MRAs, we discovered that these men construct what we call a “compensatory culture of injury.” We found that MRAs are driven by “aspirational oppression,” which we theorize as a sense of grievance surrounding a group’s diminishing privilege and desire to achieve the guise of subjugation that warrants reparations to restore the status quo in the ostensible pursuit of fairness and equality. This co-optation of victimhood may be challenged by structural conversations about gender as well as the explicit identification of the misogynistic nature of MRA narratives.

Developmental psychologists have studied how toys shape gender schemas but have not focused exclusively on sport toys. Given persistent gender gaps in sport participation, it is important to understand how gendered meanings about sport are communicated and perceived through all kinds of play. This mixed methods research examined such meanings attached to sport toys using a content analysis and a survey. In Study 1, a content and descriptive analysis of toy listings (N = 107) on retail websites revealed that most toy names lacked explicit gender labels. However, toys were more likely to display masculine color schemes and boys outnumbered girls 2-to-1 in photographs of children playing with the toys. Boys were also depicted as more actively engaged, especially with highly physical sports. In Study 2, a correlational analysis of survey responses from 530 participants indicated that adults primarily viewed sport toys as masculine, though they saw dolls, aesthetic toys, and pink toys as appropriate for girls. Aggressive sport toys were linked to boys even when they were pink, indicating limits to the impact of implicit gender markers. Together, both studies show that sports toys are still viewed as (mostly) for boys and suggest that these messages may communicate gender stereotypes about sport. Evidence-based recommendations for toy sellers regarding toy color and gender representation are included, as is advice for toy purchasers who want to encourage gender inclusive play and flexible gender schemas.

Women have made strides in male-dominated sports but still face obstacles from gender biases and lack of diversity. Particularly in strength sports, the underrepresentation of women and lack of research on their lived experiences as athletes and coaches is notable. This study investigated the experiences of 21 women athletes and four coaches aged 18–44 in the strength sports of Olympic weightlifting, powerlifting, CrossFit, and strongman. Results showed that women athletes struggled with body image, societal expectations, gender bias and diversity, and male interactions, even as they challenged gender norms and established their presence in these male-dominated sports. Athletes’ experiences aligned with past research, but also included powerful expression of what it means to be a strong woman despite societal pressure. Women coaches also report career progression and equal employment challenges and stressed the importance of women’s representation and inclusion at all levels of these sports. Findings also indicated that while women’s performance demonstrates shifting norms for strength in these sports, more work is needed to overcome continued gender bias and to achieve equal employment opportunities for coaches. National sport governing bodies should review policy to support inclusion at all levels, and provide resources, mentorship, and training opportunities to improve accessibility to women coaches and athletes at all levels.

Recently imposed reproductive rights restrictions have triggered widespread pro-choice protests in countries like Poland and the U.S. This study, conducted online in Poland following the 22 October 2020 decision of the Polish Constitutional Tribunal to strengthen restrictions on legal access to abortion, investigated the motivations of 939 Poles (55% women) to participate in pro-choice protests. We examined how different aspects of gender collective self-esteem and feminist identification were associated with reactance to the freedom restrictions imposed by the abortion ban and with engagement in pro-choice protests among women and men. We found that for both genders, weaker gender identification was associated with higher feminist identification, greater reactance to the abortion ban, and increased involvement in pro-choice protests. However, we observed gender differences in the motivations to participate. Women who perceived themselves as valued members of their gender group, had negative personal views about their gender or felt their gender was undervalued by society, were more likely to engage in pro-choice activism. Men who held negative personal views about their gender or felt their gender was valued by society were more likely to engage in pro-choice protests. This study adds novel predictors to the literature on engagement in pro-choice collective action, offering practical insights into which aspects of gender collective self-esteem should be targeted to enhance feminist identification and support for the pro-choice movement.

Objectification of women is heightened during the reproductive years and is associated with a myriad of adverse outcomes. Yet, little research has examined the impact of self-objectification among postpartum women and whether potential effects can be ameliorated. The current study investigated the association between self-objectification and well-being among women who had given birth in the last three years, and whether self-compassion moderated or mediated the link. As hypothesized, women (N = 162) higher in self-objectification reported greater body shame, appearance anxiety, depressive symptoms, and disordered eating, and lower life satisfaction, self-esteem, and more negative experience being a mother, whereas women higher in self-compassion reported more positive outcomes on these measures. Self-compassion mediated the association between self-objectification and poorer well-being on most outcomes. Unexpectedly, neither self-objectification nor self-compassion were associated with sexual dysfunction or breastfeeding confidence. The findings suggest that although women might be prone to self-objectification and body shame during the postpartum period, self-compassion explains this relation and potentially holds promise for disrupting negative experiences during the transition to motherhood.

Gender-based technology-facilitated violence and abuse (GBTFVA) is a common experience for those engaging with digital technologies in their everyday lives. To better understand why GBTFVA persists, it is necessary to understand the false beliefs and cultural narratives that enable and sustain them. Drawing on the literature on rape myths, this paper explores the prevalence of seven gender-based online violence myths among Canadian men. To achieve this, we adapted the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance (IRMA) (Payne et al., in J Research in Personality 33:27–68, 1999) to assess GBTFVA, and surveyed 1,297 Canadian men between 18 and 30 years old on their GBTFVA beliefs. Our results show that GBTFVA myths and cultural narratives are prevalent across participants, though endorsement levels vary. Four myths were more strongly endorsed: It Wasn’t Really Gender-Based Online Abuse, He Didn’t Mean To, Gender-Based Online Abuse Is a Deviant Event, and She Lied. Overall, these findings help to name and thus begin to address the narratives that sustain and perpetuate gender-based online violence.

Organizations have started more progressively using and offering family benefits including parental leaves to address the issues of balancing work and family life. Although such leaves are fundamental for supporting, attracting, and retaining women, we examine whether such leaves may also inadvertently affect women’s careers in occupations that overly value masculine traits, unless managed carefully. Drawing on the literature on gender stereotypes (micro factors) and occupation gender type (macro factors), we argue that longer (vs. shorter) parental leaves negatively affect women’s work outcomes (i.e., annual income, salary recommendation, hireability, and leadership effectiveness) in men-dominated but not in women-dominated occupations because it lowers perceptions of women’s agency. We find support for our hypotheses across three studies in the Australian context with an archival data set and two experiments. Our work shows that men-dominated organizational structures reinforce traditional gender stereotypes, whereas such reinforcement does not happen in women-dominated organizational structures. Our research equips leaders and organizations with insights into the unintended negative consequences of parental leave for women. This understanding serves as a crucial first step in developing strategies and programs to mitigate these effects, thereby supporting women in men-dominated occupations and fostering more inclusive and healthy workplaces.

Institutions of higher education (IHEs) often disseminate risk reduction strategies intended to reduce sexual assault victimization and/or perpetration. This research examined the content and context of publicly available risk reduction strategies offered by a nationally representative sample of 4-year IHEs in the United States (N = 242; public and private not-for-profit institutions, Historically Black Colleges and Universities, and Tribal institutions). We identified strategies for 102 (42%) IHEs. Using a sociocognitive approach to critical discourse analysis, we examined the specific messages conveyed via IHE risk reduction strategies, how larger sociocultural discourses and power structures were reproduced or reinforced, and the potential implications for readers (i.e., university students). Nearly all IHEs directed their strategies toward potential victims. These strategies were broad in scope, imploring behavioral modification and restriction (e.g., never be alone), and requiring specific responses to sexual assault (e.g., physical resistance). Fewer IHEs directed their strategies toward potential perpetrators; these strategies were narrower in scope, focusing on sexual consent. Overall, strategies reproduced rape myths (e.g., stranger-perpetrated assault is common) and positioned potential victims as uniquely responsible for preventing sexual assault—messaging that may be particularly harmful when disseminated by powerful institutions responsible for sexual assault prevention and response. IHEs should assess the utility of risk reduction strategies and, if retained, revise their strategies to counter harmful sexual assault messaging.

Media representations of sexuality can play a relevant role in the development of gender stereotypes and sexual learning processes. In the current pre-registered study, we examined the representation of sexuality in content on Netflix, a dominant force in global mass media consumption. We coded 271 mixed-gender sexual scenes across seven highly popular Netflix series for orgasm portrayal, depiction of sexual behaviors, including clitoral stimulation, and gendered sexual scripts (i.e., initiation, control, and expression of desires). Our results revealed a nuanced picture of women’s sexual pleasure representation. Women’s orgasms were depicted less frequently than men’s, although orgasm portrayal was generally rare. Sexual behaviors were mostly limited to penile-vaginal intercourse, though cunnilingus was depicted more frequently than fellatio. Regarding gendered sexual scripts, women were portrayed as equally sexually agentic as men, initiating sexual encounters, taking control, and expressing their needs and desires. Our findings indicate that this content simultaneously reinforces and challenges gender stereotypes related to sexual experiences, highlighting the need for sexual educators to critically address the realism of mainstream media portrayals to foster a nuanced understanding of sexuality and pleasure.