The Gallinas Mountains district located in Lincoln and Torrance Counties, New Mexico, is host to hydrothermal REE-bearing fluorite veins and breccias. Rare earth elements (REE) are found in bastnäsite-(Ce) ([Ce,La]CO 3 F), which is also the primary ore mineral mined in several important carbonatite deposits (e.g. Mountain Pass in California; Bayan Obo in China). Minor production of REE, fluorite, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, and Fe has been recorded in the Gallinas Mountains district between the early 1900s and the 1950s. The REE-bearing fluorite veins and breccias are hosted in Permian sedimentary rocks as well as genetically related trachyte/syenite sills and dikes emplaced between 28-30 Ma. Previous studies have described the REE occurrences in the Gallinas Mountains, but the controls of hydrothermal processes on the transport and deposition of REE in the district remain unclear. In this study, we combine microtextural observations with mineral and whole rock chemistry of hydrothermal REE-bearing fluorite veins and breccias to determine the vein types, alteration styles, and establish a detailed mineral paragenesis. The goal of this study is to determine lithogeochemical vectors towards REE enriched zones in the district by linking thin section and deposit scale observations with mineral and whole rock geochemistry. This district is an exceptional natural laboratory for studying the role of hydrothermal processes for transport/deposition of REE in an alkaline F-rich magmatic-hydrothermal system because very few deposits worldwide have such well-preserved and exposed geology. Hand samples of hydrothermal veins and breccias containing ± barite ± bastnäsite-(Ce) were collected from outcrops, prospect pits, and mine dumps. Optical microscopy was used to identify minerals and determine the textural features and crosscutting relationships of the different fluorite veins. Multiple vein generations have been observed: i) early K-feldspar veins; ii) barite-fluorite ± hematite ± quartz veins; iii) bastnäsite-fluorite veins; iv) late quartz and calcite veins. Bastnäsite-(Ce) is commonly found in veins overprinting earlier barite-fluorite veins and contain barite that display dissolution textures (skeletonized crystals). Cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy reveals at least three distinct fluorite generations with complex overprinting, including a generation intergrown with bastnäsite-(Ce). These textural observations suggest a key control of REE mineralization in the Gallinas Mountains district is by coupled dissolution of barite-fluorite veins and precipitation of later bastnäsite-fluorite veins. LA-ICP-MS analysis was performed on multiple fluorite generations to link fluorite chemistry with textural relationships. At least three distinct chondrite-normalized REE patterns are revealed, including: i) enriched LREE; ii) flat LREE with depleted HREE; iii) depleted LREE with enriched HREE. One fluorite generation seen replacing euhedra contains over 1% total REE. Geoche
{"title":"Lithogeochemical Vectors and Mineral Paragenesis of Hydrothermal REE-Bearing Fluorite Veins and Breccias in the Gallinas Mountains, New Mexico","authors":"Evan J. Owen, A. Gysi, V. McLemore, N. Hurtig","doi":"10.56577/sm-2022.2870","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.56577/sm-2022.2870","url":null,"abstract":"The Gallinas Mountains district located in Lincoln and Torrance Counties, New Mexico, is host to hydrothermal REE-bearing fluorite veins and breccias. Rare earth elements (REE) are found in bastnäsite-(Ce) ([Ce,La]CO 3 F), which is also the primary ore mineral mined in several important carbonatite deposits (e.g. Mountain Pass in California; Bayan Obo in China). Minor production of REE, fluorite, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, and Fe has been recorded in the Gallinas Mountains district between the early 1900s and the 1950s. The REE-bearing fluorite veins and breccias are hosted in Permian sedimentary rocks as well as genetically related trachyte/syenite sills and dikes emplaced between 28-30 Ma. Previous studies have described the REE occurrences in the Gallinas Mountains, but the controls of hydrothermal processes on the transport and deposition of REE in the district remain unclear. In this study, we combine microtextural observations with mineral and whole rock chemistry of hydrothermal REE-bearing fluorite veins and breccias to determine the vein types, alteration styles, and establish a detailed mineral paragenesis. The goal of this study is to determine lithogeochemical vectors towards REE enriched zones in the district by linking thin section and deposit scale observations with mineral and whole rock geochemistry. This district is an exceptional natural laboratory for studying the role of hydrothermal processes for transport/deposition of REE in an alkaline F-rich magmatic-hydrothermal system because very few deposits worldwide have such well-preserved and exposed geology. Hand samples of hydrothermal veins and breccias containing ± barite ± bastnäsite-(Ce) were collected from outcrops, prospect pits, and mine dumps. Optical microscopy was used to identify minerals and determine the textural features and crosscutting relationships of the different fluorite veins. Multiple vein generations have been observed: i) early K-feldspar veins; ii) barite-fluorite ± hematite ± quartz veins; iii) bastnäsite-fluorite veins; iv) late quartz and calcite veins. Bastnäsite-(Ce) is commonly found in veins overprinting earlier barite-fluorite veins and contain barite that display dissolution textures (skeletonized crystals). Cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy reveals at least three distinct fluorite generations with complex overprinting, including a generation intergrown with bastnäsite-(Ce). These textural observations suggest a key control of REE mineralization in the Gallinas Mountains district is by coupled dissolution of barite-fluorite veins and precipitation of later bastnäsite-fluorite veins. LA-ICP-MS analysis was performed on multiple fluorite generations to link fluorite chemistry with textural relationships. At least three distinct chondrite-normalized REE patterns are revealed, including: i) enriched LREE; ii) flat LREE with depleted HREE; iii) depleted LREE with enriched HREE. One fluorite generation seen replacing euhedra contains over 1% total REE. Geoche","PeriodicalId":50244,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Cave and Karst Studies","volume":"47 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2022-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87565102","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"First Report of the Late Cretaceous (Campanian) Heteromorph Ammonite Haresiceras (Haresiceras) montanaense (Reeside, 1927) From New Mexico","authors":"P. Sealey, S. Lucas","doi":"10.56577/sm-2022.2780","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.56577/sm-2022.2780","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":50244,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Cave and Karst Studies","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2022-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"74447262","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Snowy River’s Second Decade: Chaos Prevails","authors":"John T. M. Lyles","doi":"10.56577/sm-2022.2843","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.56577/sm-2022.2843","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":50244,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Cave and Karst Studies","volume":"9 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2022-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"79498795","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Two Independent Water Systems in Fort Stanton Cave","authors":"Henry Schneiker","doi":"10.56577/sm-2022.2785","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.56577/sm-2022.2785","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":50244,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Cave and Karst Studies","volume":"100 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2022-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"86850555","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Fort Stanton Cave, located in the northern Sacramento Mountains of south-central New Mexico, is formed in the middle Permian San Andres limestone. The cave is situated on the west flank of the Mescalero Arch, a broad structural divide separating the gently dipping eastern slopes of the mountains from structurally low areas of the Tularosa and Sierra Blanca Basins to the west. Fort Stanton Cave is located downgradient from extensive outcrops of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks as well as igneous and volcanic rock exposed at higher elevations in the Sierra Blanca Basin. This complex geologic setting results in surface drainage systems that originate on non-carbonate bedrock and are thus probably undersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate, making downstream dissolution and cave formation more likely. Evidence of both accretionary and dissolutional processes are widespread in the region. Tufa mounds associated with active and relict springs are a common feature in the southern Sacramentos. The most distinctive accretionary feature in Fort Stanton Cave is the Snowy River formation, a pool deposit composed of white calcite that coats the floor of the Snowy River passage, and currently extends >17 km with its southern terminus still undefined. Core samples collected from the Snowy River deposit reveal a laminated internal structure, indicating episodic deposition of sub-millimeter scale calcite laminae during periods when the passage stream is activated. The age of the basal layer has been determined to be only 820 years old, suggesting an abrupt change in climatic or hydrochemical conditions within the past millennium. The origin of water flow in the Snowy River passage is unknown, but appears to be associated with extreme summer precipitation events or heavy winter snowfall in the northern Sacramento Mountains. Field observations and hydrograph records support a point source or sources for water in the Snowy River passage via sinkholes or losing streams upgradient from the southwesternmost mapped stations in the cave.
{"title":"Fort Stanton Cave and the northern Sacramento Mountains: Regional geologic and hydrologic context","authors":"L. Land","doi":"10.56577/sm-2022.2808","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.56577/sm-2022.2808","url":null,"abstract":"Fort Stanton Cave, located in the northern Sacramento Mountains of south-central New Mexico, is formed in the middle Permian San Andres limestone. The cave is situated on the west flank of the Mescalero Arch, a broad structural divide separating the gently dipping eastern slopes of the mountains from structurally low areas of the Tularosa and Sierra Blanca Basins to the west. Fort Stanton Cave is located downgradient from extensive outcrops of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks as well as igneous and volcanic rock exposed at higher elevations in the Sierra Blanca Basin. This complex geologic setting results in surface drainage systems that originate on non-carbonate bedrock and are thus probably undersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate, making downstream dissolution and cave formation more likely. Evidence of both accretionary and dissolutional processes are widespread in the region. Tufa mounds associated with active and relict springs are a common feature in the southern Sacramentos. The most distinctive accretionary feature in Fort Stanton Cave is the Snowy River formation, a pool deposit composed of white calcite that coats the floor of the Snowy River passage, and currently extends >17 km with its southern terminus still undefined. Core samples collected from the Snowy River deposit reveal a laminated internal structure, indicating episodic deposition of sub-millimeter scale calcite laminae during periods when the passage stream is activated. The age of the basal layer has been determined to be only 820 years old, suggesting an abrupt change in climatic or hydrochemical conditions within the past millennium. The origin of water flow in the Snowy River passage is unknown, but appears to be associated with extreme summer precipitation events or heavy winter snowfall in the northern Sacramento Mountains. Field observations and hydrograph records support a point source or sources for water in the Snowy River passage via sinkholes or losing streams upgradient from the southwesternmost mapped stations in the cave.","PeriodicalId":50244,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Cave and Karst Studies","volume":"5 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2022-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"82490944","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Monitoring Sediment Erosion and Deposition in the Arroyo de los Pinos Through Structure from Motion (SfM) Photogrammetry","authors":"Rebecca Moskal, D. Cadol","doi":"10.56577/sm-2022.2827","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.56577/sm-2022.2827","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":50244,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Cave and Karst Studies","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2022-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"77690294","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Sulfuric Acid Speleogenesis in the Frasassi Cave System, Italy, and Possible Implications for Guadalupe Mountain Caves","authors":"Daniel S. Jones","doi":"10.56577/sm-2022.2848","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.56577/sm-2022.2848","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":50244,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Cave and Karst Studies","volume":"759 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2022-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"78809504","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Fort Stanton Cave Formation Repair and Restoration Project","authors":"Michael C. Mansur","doi":"10.56577/sm-2022.2803","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.56577/sm-2022.2803","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":50244,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Cave and Karst Studies","volume":"65 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2022-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"86092276","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"A Reservoir Model for Snowy River Flooding","authors":"Steve S. Peerman","doi":"10.56577/sm-2022.2783","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.56577/sm-2022.2783","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":50244,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Cave and Karst Studies","volume":"146 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2022-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"85545245","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
D. Northup, Jason C. Kimble, Ara S. Winter, R. Sinsabaugh
Arid-land carbonate caves, such as Fort Stanton Cave, receive limited surface input; hence, critical constituents required for microbial communities are often limited. We hypothesized that the microbial communities residing in surface soils would differ from their subsurface counterparts found throughout the Snowy River passage on walls and ceilings in soil-like material ( speleosol ) rich in Fe- and Mn-oxides. Also referred to as ferromanganese deposits (FMDs), these secondary mineral deposits represent low nutrient environments that would likely select for organisms with metabolisms that favor low-nutrient local conditions and may be chemolithotrophic (“rock eaters”). We examined archaeal and bacterial makeup of low-nutrient ferromanganese deposits occurring in Fort Stanton Cave, NM, USA, and in corresponding overlying surface soils. Results of 16S rRNA gene sequencing indicate that bacterial and archaeal communities in the cave are taxonomically significantly dissimilar to their corresponding surface soils. Core microbial constituents of these communities, representing operational taxonomic units (OTUs) occurring in >80% of all samples, determined that there were only 19 and 17 archaeal and bacterial OTUs shared between surface and cave samples, respectively out of the total 1,639 archaeal and 12,051 bacterial OTUs. Surface archaeal communities were primarily represented by the Thaumarchaeota class Soil Crenarchaeotic Group (SCG), which play important roles in nitrogen cycling. Dominant archaeal groups in the subsurface included the Euryarchaeota class Thermoplasmata and Thaumarchaeota classes South African Gold Mine Gp 1 (SAGMCG-1), Marine Group I, and AK31. Bacterial cave OTUs significantly different from surface bacteria included Nitrospirae, GAL15, Omnitrophica , Zixibacteria, Latescibacteria , SBR1093,
干旱地区的碳酸盐岩洞穴，如斯坦顿堡洞穴，接收到的地表输入有限;因此，微生物群落所需的关键成分往往是有限的。我们假设居住在表层土壤中的微生物群落与遍布雪河通道的墙壁和天花板上富含铁和锰氧化物的类土物质(洞穴溶质)中的地下对应体不同。这些次生矿床也被称为锰铁矿床(FMDs)，它们代表了低营养环境，可能会选择具有有利于低营养当地条件的代谢的生物，并且可能是趋化石营养(“食石者”)。我们研究了发生在Fort Stanton Cave, NM, USA的低营养锰铁沉积物的古细菌和细菌组成，以及相应的覆盖表面土壤。16S rRNA基因测序结果表明，洞内细菌和古细菌群落在分类上与其对应的表层土壤存在显著差异。这些群落的核心微生物组分，代表了所有样品中80%以上的操作分类单元(otu)，确定了地表和洞穴样品中只有19个和17个古细菌和细菌的otu，分别在1,639个古细菌和12,051个细菌otu中共享。表层古细菌群落以土壤绿古菌群(SCG)为代表，在氮循环中起重要作用。地下优势古菌群包括Euryarchaeota类Thermoplasmata和Thaumarchaeota类South African Gold Mine Gp 1 (SAGMCG-1)、Marine Group I和AK31。细菌洞穴OTUs与地表细菌差异显著的有Nitrospirae、GAL15、Omnitrophica、Zixibacteria、Latescibacteria、SBR1093、
{"title":"Contrasting Microbial Communities in Cave Ferromanganese Deposits With Overlying Surface Soils","authors":"D. Northup, Jason C. Kimble, Ara S. Winter, R. Sinsabaugh","doi":"10.56577/sm-2022.2834","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.56577/sm-2022.2834","url":null,"abstract":"Arid-land carbonate caves, such as Fort Stanton Cave, receive limited surface input; hence, critical constituents required for microbial communities are often limited. We hypothesized that the microbial communities residing in surface soils would differ from their subsurface counterparts found throughout the Snowy River passage on walls and ceilings in soil-like material ( speleosol ) rich in Fe- and Mn-oxides. Also referred to as ferromanganese deposits (FMDs), these secondary mineral deposits represent low nutrient environments that would likely select for organisms with metabolisms that favor low-nutrient local conditions and may be chemolithotrophic (“rock eaters”). We examined archaeal and bacterial makeup of low-nutrient ferromanganese deposits occurring in Fort Stanton Cave, NM, USA, and in corresponding overlying surface soils. Results of 16S rRNA gene sequencing indicate that bacterial and archaeal communities in the cave are taxonomically significantly dissimilar to their corresponding surface soils. Core microbial constituents of these communities, representing operational taxonomic units (OTUs) occurring in >80% of all samples, determined that there were only 19 and 17 archaeal and bacterial OTUs shared between surface and cave samples, respectively out of the total 1,639 archaeal and 12,051 bacterial OTUs. Surface archaeal communities were primarily represented by the Thaumarchaeota class Soil Crenarchaeotic Group (SCG), which play important roles in nitrogen cycling. Dominant archaeal groups in the subsurface included the Euryarchaeota class Thermoplasmata and Thaumarchaeota classes South African Gold Mine Gp 1 (SAGMCG-1), Marine Group I, and AK31. Bacterial cave OTUs significantly different from surface bacteria included Nitrospirae, GAL15, Omnitrophica , Zixibacteria, Latescibacteria , SBR1093,","PeriodicalId":50244,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Cave and Karst Studies","volume":"33 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2022-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"85035735","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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