Lennart Kopp, Patrick Harfmann, Lucas Niederberger, Timm Schwämmle, Markus Kley
The automotive industry is continuously evolving, demanding innovative approaches to enhance testing methodologies and preventively identify potential issues. This paper proposes an advanced test approach in the area of the overall vehicle system including the steering system and powertrain on a Road to Rig test bench. The research aims to revolutionize the conventional testing process by identifying faults at an early stage and eliminating the need to rely solely on field tests. The motivation behind this research is to optimize the test bench setup and bring it even closer to real field tests. Key highlights of the publication include the introduction of an expanded load spectrum, incorporating both steering angle and speed parameters along the test track. The load includes different route and driving profiles like on a freeway, overland and city drive in combination with the steering angles. Furthermore, for the first instance, specific driving manoeuvres, including slalom driving and autonomous parking, can now be simulated and tested. Also, there are critical driving scenarios like the standardized severe lane-change manoeuvre. This innovative approach not only refines the accuracy of steering simulations but also provides a comprehensive representation of real-world driving conditions. The paper also outlines the development and verification of a design specifically tailored for the test bench environment. This comprehensive approach ensures the reliability and applicability of the proposed steering simulation methodology. The integration of multibody simulations further enhances the study by elucidating the individual component loads.
汽车行业在不断发展，需要创新的方法来加强测试方法和预防性地发现潜在问题。本文在 "从道路到钻机"（Road to Rig）试验台上提出了一种先进的整体车辆系统（包括转向系统和动力总成）测试方法。该研究旨在彻底改变传统的测试流程，在早期阶段识别故障，无需完全依赖现场测试。这项研究的动机是优化测试台的设置，使其更加接近真实的现场测试。该出版物的主要亮点包括引入了一个扩展的负载谱，其中包含了测试轨道上的转向角和速度参数。载荷包括不同的路线和驾驶情况，如高速公路、陆地和城市驾驶，并与转向角度相结合。此外，现在还可以首次模拟和测试特定的驾驶动作，包括回旋驾驶和自动泊车。此外，还有一些关键的驾驶场景，如标准化的严重变道操作。这种创新方法不仅提高了转向模拟的准确性，还全面反映了真实世界的驾驶条件。论文还概述了专为测试台环境定制的设计的开发和验证。这种综合方法确保了所提出的转向模拟方法的可靠性和适用性。多体模拟的集成通过阐明单个部件的负载进一步加强了研究。
{"title":"Evaluation and Simulation of wheel Steering Functionality on a Road to Rig Test Bench","authors":"Lennart Kopp, Patrick Harfmann, Lucas Niederberger, Timm Schwämmle, Markus Kley","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3000","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3000","url":null,"abstract":"The automotive industry is continuously evolving, demanding innovative approaches to enhance testing methodologies and preventively identify potential issues. This paper proposes an advanced test approach in the area of the overall vehicle system including the steering system and powertrain on a Road to Rig test bench. The research aims to revolutionize the conventional testing process by identifying faults at an early stage and eliminating the need to rely solely on field tests. The motivation behind this research is to optimize the test bench setup and bring it even closer to real field tests. Key highlights of the publication include the introduction of an expanded load spectrum, incorporating both steering angle and speed parameters along the test track. The load includes different route and driving profiles like on a freeway, overland and city drive in combination with the steering angles. Furthermore, for the first instance, specific driving manoeuvres, including slalom driving and autonomous parking, can now be simulated and tested. Also, there are critical driving scenarios like the standardized severe lane-change manoeuvre. This innovative approach not only refines the accuracy of steering simulations but also provides a comprehensive representation of real-world driving conditions. The paper also outlines the development and verification of a design specifically tailored for the test bench environment. This comprehensive approach ensures the reliability and applicability of the proposed steering simulation methodology. The integration of multibody simulations further enhances the study by elucidating the individual component loads.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"2 8","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141686147","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Due to its physical and chemical properties, hydrogen is an attractive fuel for internal combustion engines, providing grounds for studies on hydrogen engines. It is common practice to use a mathematical model for basic engine design and an essential part of this is the simulation of the combustion cycle, which is the subject of the work presented here. One of the most widely used models for describing combustion in gasoline and diesel engines is the Wiebe model. However, for cases of hydrogen combustion in DI engines, which are characterized by mixture stratification and in some cases significant incomplete combustion, practically no data can be found in the literature on the application of the Wiebe model. Based on Wiebe’s formulas, a mathematical model of hydrogen combustion has been developed. The model allows making computations for both DI and PFI hydrogen engines. The parameters of the Wiebe model were assessed for three different engines in a total of 26 operating modes. The modified base model considers the significant incompleteness of hydrogen combustion, which occurs at high air/fuel equivalence ratio. For PFI and DI hydrogen engines, equations and numerical values for the Wiebe model coefficients were determined to describe the dynamic and duration of combustion. Based on our simulation results we suggest using the sum of two Wiebe curves to describe combustion in zones with a lean mixture in DI engines. This allows a more accurate characterization of the combustion dynamics and pressure curves. In order to model a double hydrogen injection, we suggest using the sum of three Wiebe curves representing the combustion of the first injection in the flame front, the diffusion combustion of the second injection, and the relatively slow combustion in lean mixture zones. In the paper, we present a method for selecting the coefficients of each of the Wiebe curves.
由于其物理和化学特性，氢气是一种极具吸引力的内燃机燃料，这为氢气发动机的研究提供了基础。通常的做法是使用数学模型进行发动机的基本设计，其中一个重要部分是模拟燃烧循环，这也是本文所介绍的工作的主题。用于描述汽油和柴油发动机燃烧的最广泛的模型之一是 Wiebe 模型。然而，对于 DI 发动机中的氢气燃烧，其特点是混合气分层，在某些情况下会出现严重的不完全燃烧，在文献中几乎找不到关于 Wiebe 模型应用的数据。根据 Wiebe 的公式，我们建立了一个氢气燃烧数学模型。该模型可用于 DI 和 PFI 氢气发动机的计算。在总共 26 种运行模式下，对三种不同发动机的 Wiebe 模型参数进行了评估。修改后的基本模型考虑了氢燃烧的显著不完整性，这种不完整性发生在高空气/燃料当量比的情况下。针对 PFI 和 DI 氢气发动机，确定了维伯模型系数的方程和数值，以描述燃烧的动态和持续时间。根据我们的模拟结果，我们建议使用两条 Wiebe 曲线之和来描述 DI 发动机贫混合气区域的燃烧情况。这样可以更准确地描述燃烧动态和压力曲线。为了建立双氢喷射模型，我们建议使用三条维伯曲线之和，分别代表火焰前沿的第一次喷射燃烧、第二次喷射的扩散燃烧以及贫混合气区中相对缓慢的燃烧。在本文中，我们提出了一种选择各维伯曲线系数的方法。
{"title":"Simulation of Hydrogen Combustion in Spark Ignition Engines Using a Modified Wiebe Model","authors":"O. Osetrov, Rainer Haas","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3016","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3016","url":null,"abstract":"Due to its physical and chemical properties, hydrogen is an attractive fuel for internal combustion engines, providing grounds for studies on hydrogen engines. It is common practice to use a mathematical model for basic engine design and an essential part of this is the simulation of the combustion cycle, which is the subject of the work presented here. One of the most widely used models for describing combustion in gasoline and diesel engines is the Wiebe model. However, for cases of hydrogen combustion in DI engines, which are characterized by mixture stratification and in some cases significant incomplete combustion, practically no data can be found in the literature on the application of the Wiebe model. Based on Wiebe’s formulas, a mathematical model of hydrogen combustion has been developed. The model allows making computations for both DI and PFI hydrogen engines. The parameters of the Wiebe model were assessed for three different engines in a total of 26 operating modes. The modified base model considers the significant incompleteness of hydrogen combustion, which occurs at high air/fuel equivalence ratio. For PFI and DI hydrogen engines, equations and numerical values for the Wiebe model coefficients were determined to describe the dynamic and duration of combustion. Based on our simulation results we suggest using the sum of two Wiebe curves to describe combustion in zones with a lean mixture in DI engines. This allows a more accurate characterization of the combustion dynamics and pressure curves. In order to model a double hydrogen injection, we suggest using the sum of three Wiebe curves representing the combustion of the first injection in the flame front, the diffusion combustion of the second injection, and the relatively slow combustion in lean mixture zones. In the paper, we present a method for selecting the coefficients of each of the Wiebe curves.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"154 6‐10","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141686584","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Gina Abdelhalim, Kevin Simon, Robert Bensch, Sai Parimi, Bilal Ahmed Qureshi
Autonomous Driving is used in various settings, including indoor areas such as industrial halls and warehouses. For perception in these environments, LIDAR is currently very popular due to its high accuracy compared to RADAR and its robustness to varying lighting conditions compared to cameras. However, there is a notable lack of freely available labeled LIDAR data in these settings, and most public datasets, such as KITTI and Waymo, focus on public road scenarios. As a result, specialized publicly available annotation frameworks are rare as well. This work tackles these shortcomings by developing an automated AI-based labeling tool to generate a LIDAR dataset with 3D ground truth annotations for industrial warehouse scenarios. The base pipeline for the annotation framework first upsamples the incoming 16-channel data into dense 64-channel data. The upsampled data is then manually annotated for the defined classes and this annotated 64-channel dataset is used to fine-tune the Part-A2-Net that has been pretrained on the KITTI dataset. This fine-tuned network shows promising results for the defined classes. To overcome some shortcomings with this pipeline, which mainly involves artefacts from upsampling and manual labeling, we extend the pipeline to make use of SLAM to generate the dense point cloud and use the generated poses to speed up the labeling process. The progression, therefore shows the three generations of the framework which started with manual upsampling and labeling. This then was extended to a semi-automated approach with automatic generation of dense map using SLAM and automatic annotation propagation to all the scans for all static classes and then the complete automatic pipeline that generates ground truth using the Part-A2-Net which was trained using the dataset generated from the manual and semi-automated pipelines. The dataset generated for this warehouse environment will continuously be extended and is publicly available at https://github.com/anavsgmbh/lidar-warehouse-dataset.
{"title":"Automated AI-Based Annotation Framework for 3D Object Detection from LIDAR Data in Industrial Areas","authors":"Gina Abdelhalim, Kevin Simon, Robert Bensch, Sai Parimi, Bilal Ahmed Qureshi","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2999","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2999","url":null,"abstract":"Autonomous Driving is used in various settings, including indoor areas such as industrial halls and warehouses. For perception in these environments, LIDAR is currently very popular due to its high accuracy compared to RADAR and its robustness to varying lighting conditions compared to cameras. However, there is a notable lack of freely available labeled LIDAR data in these settings, and most public datasets, such as KITTI and Waymo, focus on public road scenarios. As a result, specialized publicly available annotation frameworks are rare as well. This work tackles these shortcomings by developing an automated AI-based labeling tool to generate a LIDAR dataset with 3D ground truth annotations for industrial warehouse scenarios. The base pipeline for the annotation framework first upsamples the incoming 16-channel data into dense 64-channel data. The upsampled data is then manually annotated for the defined classes and this annotated 64-channel dataset is used to fine-tune the Part-A2-Net that has been pretrained on the KITTI dataset. This fine-tuned network shows promising results for the defined classes. To overcome some shortcomings with this pipeline, which mainly involves artefacts from upsampling and manual labeling, we extend the pipeline to make use of SLAM to generate the dense point cloud and use the generated poses to speed up the labeling process. The progression, therefore shows the three generations of the framework which started with manual upsampling and labeling. This then was extended to a semi-automated approach with automatic generation of dense map using SLAM and automatic annotation propagation to all the scans for all static classes and then the complete automatic pipeline that generates ground truth using the Part-A2-Net which was trained using the dataset generated from the manual and semi-automated pipelines. The dataset generated for this warehouse environment will continuously be extended and is publicly available at https://github.com/anavsgmbh/lidar-warehouse-dataset.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"55 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141688621","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
To shape future mobility MAHLE has committed itself to foster wireless charging for electrical vehicles. The standardized wireless power transfer of 11 kW at a voltage level of 800 V significantly improves the end user experience for charging an electric vehicle without the need to handle a connector and cable anymore. Combined with automated parking and autonomous driving systems, the challenge to charge fleets without user interaction is solved.Wireless charging is based on inductive power transfer. In the ground assembly’s (GA) power transfer coil, a magnetic field is generated which induces a voltage in the vehicle assembly (VA) power transfer coil. To transfer the power from grid to battery with a high efficiency up to 92% the power transfer coils are compensated with resonant circuits.In this paper the Differential-Inductive-Positioning-System (DIPS) to align a vehicle on the GA for parking will be presented. This system utilizes five standardized magnetic fields which are generated within the GA. On the VA induced voltages by the standardized magnetic fields are measured with two crossed coils. A dedicated coil in the GA provides the (magnetic) field for the steering and braking information. The stop signal for the vehicle is provided by an array of four coils in the GA. Additionally to private garages, the DIPS is designed for multi-GA parking spots as well. The special differential signal processing makes the procedure extremely robust against metallic foreign objects. The high accuracy of the DIPS allows the driver to align the vehicle at the first attempt. The automized pairing process enables a charging process without interaction of the driver.
为了塑造未来的移动性，马勒致力于推动电动汽车无线充电的发展。在 800 V 的电压水平下，11 kW 的标准化无线功率传输大大改善了最终用户为电动汽车充电的体验，而无需再处理连接器和电缆。结合自动泊车和自动驾驶系统，无需用户交互即可为车队充电的难题迎刃而解。在地面总成（GA）的电力传输线圈中，会产生一个磁场，该磁场会在车辆总成（VA）的电力传输线圈中感应出一个电压。为了以高达 92% 的效率将电能从电网传输到电池，功率传输线圈采用谐振电路进行补偿。本文将介绍差分感应定位系统 (DIPS)，该系统用于将车辆对准 GA 进行停放。该系统利用 GA 内部产生的五个标准化磁场。通过两个交叉线圈测量标准化磁场在 VA 上产生的感应电压。自动导航仪中的专用线圈为转向和制动信息提供（磁）场。车辆停止信号由 GA 中的四个线圈阵列提供。除私人车库外，DIPS 还设计用于多 GA 停车场。特殊的差分信号处理使该程序对金属异物具有极强的抵抗力。DIPS 的高精确度使驾驶员在第一次尝试时就能对准车辆。自动配对过程可实现充电过程，而无需与驾驶员互动。
{"title":"Standardized Differential Inductive Positioning System for Wireless Charging of Electric Vehicles","authors":"Mike Boettigheimer, Philip Grabherr","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2987","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2987","url":null,"abstract":"To shape future mobility MAHLE has committed itself to foster wireless charging for electrical vehicles. The standardized wireless power transfer of 11 kW at a voltage level of 800 V significantly improves the end user experience for charging an electric vehicle without the need to handle a connector and cable anymore. Combined with automated parking and autonomous driving systems, the challenge to charge fleets without user interaction is solved.Wireless charging is based on inductive power transfer. In the ground assembly’s (GA) power transfer coil, a magnetic field is generated which induces a voltage in the vehicle assembly (VA) power transfer coil. To transfer the power from grid to battery with a high efficiency up to 92% the power transfer coils are compensated with resonant circuits.In this paper the Differential-Inductive-Positioning-System (DIPS) to align a vehicle on the GA for parking will be presented. This system utilizes five standardized magnetic fields which are generated within the GA. On the VA induced voltages by the standardized magnetic fields are measured with two crossed coils. A dedicated coil in the GA provides the (magnetic) field for the steering and braking information. The stop signal for the vehicle is provided by an array of four coils in the GA. Additionally to private garages, the DIPS is designed for multi-GA parking spots as well. The special differential signal processing makes the procedure extremely robust against metallic foreign objects. The high accuracy of the DIPS allows the driver to align the vehicle at the first attempt. The automized pairing process enables a charging process without interaction of the driver.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"355 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141686331","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Inti Runa Supa Stölben, M. Beltle, Stefan Tenbohlen
The ongoing energy transition will have a profound impact on future mobility, with electrification playing a key role. Battery electric vehicles (EVs) are the dominant technology, relying on the conversion of alternating current (AC) from the grid to direct current (DC) to charge the traction battery. This process involves power electronic components such as rectifiers and DC/DC converters operating at high switching frequencies in the kHz range. Fast switching is essential to minimise losses and improve efficiency, but it might also generate electro-magnetic interferences (EMI). Hence, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) testing is essential to ensure reliable system operations and to meet international standards. During DC charging, the AC/DC conversion takes place off-board in the charging station, allowing for better cooling and larger components, resulting in increased power transfer, currently up to 350 kW. The EMC requirements for this charging method are outlined in IEC 61851-21-2. This paper presents possible test setups supporting the standard. Furthermore, it emphasizes the need for measurements not only in controlled laboratories, but also at real charging stations within their specific environments. Therefore, a mobile test setup is introduced and validated. It can be connected to any public DC charging station using a European standard plug CCS-2 (Combined Charging System 2). In addition, the emerging concept of Vehicle to Grid (V2G) is gaining prominence. The objective is to leverage electric vehicles as mobile energy storage for grid optimization and stabilization. The proposed test setup also allows to take these operating states into account concerning conducted interference emissions. As the transition to electric mobility progresses, these investigations contribute ensuring the seamless integration of EVs into the evolving energy landscape.
{"title":"Electromagnetic Compatibility Assessment of Electric Vehicles during DC-Charging with European Combined Charging System","authors":"Inti Runa Supa Stölben, M. Beltle, Stefan Tenbohlen","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3008","url":null,"abstract":"The ongoing energy transition will have a profound impact on future mobility, with electrification playing a key role. Battery electric vehicles (EVs) are the dominant technology, relying on the conversion of alternating current (AC) from the grid to direct current (DC) to charge the traction battery. This process involves power electronic components such as rectifiers and DC/DC converters operating at high switching frequencies in the kHz range. Fast switching is essential to minimise losses and improve efficiency, but it might also generate electro-magnetic interferences (EMI). Hence, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) testing is essential to ensure reliable system operations and to meet international standards. During DC charging, the AC/DC conversion takes place off-board in the charging station, allowing for better cooling and larger components, resulting in increased power transfer, currently up to 350 kW. The EMC requirements for this charging method are outlined in IEC 61851-21-2. This paper presents possible test setups supporting the standard. Furthermore, it emphasizes the need for measurements not only in controlled laboratories, but also at real charging stations within their specific environments. Therefore, a mobile test setup is introduced and validated. It can be connected to any public DC charging station using a European standard plug CCS-2 (Combined Charging System 2). In addition, the emerging concept of Vehicle to Grid (V2G) is gaining prominence. The objective is to leverage electric vehicles as mobile energy storage for grid optimization and stabilization. The proposed test setup also allows to take these operating states into account concerning conducted interference emissions. As the transition to electric mobility progresses, these investigations contribute ensuring the seamless integration of EVs into the evolving energy landscape.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"33 8","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141687541","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Axel Sturm, M. Kascha, M. A. Mejri, Roman Henze, L. Heister, A. Mueck
In this paper, we present the concept of automated park and charge functions in two different use cases. The main use case is automated driving in production and the other use case is within automated valet parking in parking garages. The automated park and charge in production is developed in the scope of the publicly funded project E-SELF in Germany. The central aim of this project is the development and integration of automated driving at the end-of-line in the production at Ford Motor Company's manufacturing plant in Cologne. The driving function thereby is mostly based upon automated valet driving with an infrastructure-based perception and motion planning. Especially for electric vehicles, the state of charge of the battery is critical, since energy is needed for all testing and driving operations at the end-of-line. In addition, long shipping, combined with a specific state of charge requirement at customer delivery, require recharging at the production facility. This recharging process is also an automated process with a robot and demands direct connection to the driving function. The main scope of this paper is the introduction of an energy demand calculation for the necessary charging operations. The developed tool allows multiple analyses for identifying further potentials in the production line. Based on a study of a Ford Mach-E it showed, that the highest energy demands are due to battery self-discharging during standstill, especially in the summer months. For a transport to the customer by train and truck, an energy demand of 2kWh within the production facility is estimated. Longer transport times, e.g. when the vehicle is shipped to the customer, the energy demand increases up to 4 kWh. Depending on the vehicle and application, the developed toolchain allows future optimization of recharging processes and also promotes automated park and charging, where the demands can be individually calculated by the park management system.
{"title":"Automated Park and Charge: Concept and Energy Demand Calculation","authors":"Axel Sturm, M. Kascha, M. A. Mejri, Roman Henze, L. Heister, A. Mueck","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2988","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2988","url":null,"abstract":"In this paper, we present the concept of automated park and charge functions in two different use cases. The main use case is automated driving in production and the other use case is within automated valet parking in parking garages. The automated park and charge in production is developed in the scope of the publicly funded project E-SELF in Germany. The central aim of this project is the development and integration of automated driving at the end-of-line in the production at Ford Motor Company's manufacturing plant in Cologne. The driving function thereby is mostly based upon automated valet driving with an infrastructure-based perception and motion planning. Especially for electric vehicles, the state of charge of the battery is critical, since energy is needed for all testing and driving operations at the end-of-line. In addition, long shipping, combined with a specific state of charge requirement at customer delivery, require recharging at the production facility. This recharging process is also an automated process with a robot and demands direct connection to the driving function. The main scope of this paper is the introduction of an energy demand calculation for the necessary charging operations. The developed tool allows multiple analyses for identifying further potentials in the production line. Based on a study of a Ford Mach-E it showed, that the highest energy demands are due to battery self-discharging during standstill, especially in the summer months. For a transport to the customer by train and truck, an energy demand of 2kWh within the production facility is estimated. Longer transport times, e.g. when the vehicle is shipped to the customer, the energy demand increases up to 4 kWh. Depending on the vehicle and application, the developed toolchain allows future optimization of recharging processes and also promotes automated park and charging, where the demands can be individually calculated by the park management system.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"333 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141686915","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Mike Reinecke, Akif Karayel, Hendrik von Schöning, Uwe Schaefer, M. Moullion, Victor Faessler, R. Lehmann
With the automotive industry’s increasing focus on electromobility and the growing share of electric cars, new challenges are arising for the development of electric motors. The requirements for torque and power of traction motors are constantly growing, while installation space, costs and weight are increasingly becoming limiting factors. Moreover, there is an inherent conflict in the design between power density and efficiency of an electric motor. Thus, a main focus in today’s development lies on space-saving and yet effective and innovative cooling systems. This paper presents an approach for a multi-physical optimization that combines the domains of electromagnetics and thermodynamics. Based on a reference machine, this simulative study examins a total of nine different stator cooling concepts varying the cooling duct positions and end-winding cooling concepts. To ensure the highest possible comparability, the rotor geometry as well as the overall dimensions in terms of outer diameter and length of the electric machine remain unchanged. The stator design is slightly adjusted to achieve same maximum torque and winding cross-section. Initially, the electromagnetic effects of various cooling slot positions are investigated and compared with respect to efficiency and individual loss distribution. Subsequently, the thermal performance is analyzed by means of fluid-dynamical simulations to quantify the heat transfer and assess the cooling effectivity. Eventually, these results are merged in a lumped parameter thermal network model. Accounting for both the distinguished electromagnetic and thermal benefits and disadvantages, a final study is presented evaluating the continuous power capability of the different concepts at equal boundary conditions.
{"title":"Investigation of Stator Cooling Concepts of an Electric Machine for Maximization of Continuous Power","authors":"Mike Reinecke, Akif Karayel, Hendrik von Schöning, Uwe Schaefer, M. Moullion, Victor Faessler, R. Lehmann","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3014","url":null,"abstract":"With the automotive industry’s increasing focus on electromobility and the growing share of electric cars, new challenges are arising for the development of electric motors. The requirements for torque and power of traction motors are constantly growing, while installation space, costs and weight are increasingly becoming limiting factors. Moreover, there is an inherent conflict in the design between power density and efficiency of an electric motor. Thus, a main focus in today’s development lies on space-saving and yet effective and innovative cooling systems. This paper presents an approach for a multi-physical optimization that combines the domains of electromagnetics and thermodynamics. Based on a reference machine, this simulative study examins a total of nine different stator cooling concepts varying the cooling duct positions and end-winding cooling concepts. To ensure the highest possible comparability, the rotor geometry as well as the overall dimensions in terms of outer diameter and length of the electric machine remain unchanged. The stator design is slightly adjusted to achieve same maximum torque and winding cross-section. Initially, the electromagnetic effects of various cooling slot positions are investigated and compared with respect to efficiency and individual loss distribution. Subsequently, the thermal performance is analyzed by means of fluid-dynamical simulations to quantify the heat transfer and assess the cooling effectivity. Eventually, these results are merged in a lumped parameter thermal network model. Accounting for both the distinguished electromagnetic and thermal benefits and disadvantages, a final study is presented evaluating the continuous power capability of the different concepts at equal boundary conditions.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"6 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141687300","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
On the path to decarbonizing road transport, electric commercial vehicles will play a significant role. The first applications were directed to the smaller trucks for distribution traffic with relatively moderate driving and range requirements. Meanwhile, the first generation of a complete portfolio of truck sizes has been developed and is available on the market. In these early applications, many compromises were made to overcome component availability, but today, the supply chain has evolved to address the specific needs of electric trucks. With that, optimization toward higher performance and lower costs is moving to the next level. For long-haul trucks, efficiency is a driving factor for the total cost of ownership (TCO) due to the importance of the energy costs [1]. Besides the propulsion system, other related systems must be optimized for higher efficiency. This includes thermal management since the thermal management components consume energy and have a direct impact on the driving range. The main function of thermal management is to protect the components to ensure a long lifetime, especially in the case of the battery. The driver's comfort is another important purpose of the thermal management system (TMS). In the present study, the design development of the TMS layout for an electric heavy-duty (HD) truck is described. The modeled TMS is challenged under different operation conditions, including demanding drive cycles as well as fast charging events. The results are analyzed in terms of energy flows and the usage of the different components of the thermal system. From those results, conclusions are derived for the sizing of components to meet the requirements of electric HD truck applications.
在道路运输去碳化的道路上，电动商用车将发挥重要作用。首批应用主要针对对行驶和续航能力要求相对较低的小型配送卡车。与此同时，第一代完整的卡车尺寸组合已经开发完成并投放市场。在这些早期应用中，为了克服零部件供应问题，我们做出了许多妥协，但如今，供应链已经发展到可以满足电动卡车的特殊需求。因此，为实现更高性能和更低成本而进行的优化正迈向新的台阶。对于长途运输卡车来说，由于能源成本的重要性，效率是总拥有成本（TCO）的驱动因素[1]。除推进系统外，还必须优化其他相关系统，以提高效率。这包括热管理，因为热管理组件消耗能源并直接影响行驶里程。热管理的主要功能是保护部件，以确保较长的使用寿命，尤其是电池。驾驶员的舒适度是热管理系统（TMS）的另一个重要目的。本研究介绍了电动重型（HD）卡车 TMS 布局的设计开发。在不同的运行条件下，包括苛刻的驱动循环和快速充电事件，对模型 TMS 提出了挑战。从能量流和热力系统不同组件的使用方面对结果进行了分析。根据这些结果，得出了如何确定组件尺寸以满足电动 HD 卡车应用要求的结论。
{"title":"Thermal Management System for Battery Electric Heavy-Duty Trucks","authors":"Daniel Gajowski, Wolfgang Wenzel, Matthias Hütter","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2971","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2971","url":null,"abstract":"On the path to decarbonizing road transport, electric commercial vehicles will play a significant role. The first applications were directed to the smaller trucks for distribution traffic with relatively moderate driving and range requirements. Meanwhile, the first generation of a complete portfolio of truck sizes has been developed and is available on the market. In these early applications, many compromises were made to overcome component availability, but today, the supply chain has evolved to address the specific needs of electric trucks. With that, optimization toward higher performance and lower costs is moving to the next level. For long-haul trucks, efficiency is a driving factor for the total cost of ownership (TCO) due to the importance of the energy costs [1]. Besides the propulsion system, other related systems must be optimized for higher efficiency. This includes thermal management since the thermal management components consume energy and have a direct impact on the driving range. The main function of thermal management is to protect the components to ensure a long lifetime, especially in the case of the battery. The driver's comfort is another important purpose of the thermal management system (TMS). In the present study, the design development of the TMS layout for an electric heavy-duty (HD) truck is described. The modeled TMS is challenged under different operation conditions, including demanding drive cycles as well as fast charging events. The results are analyzed in terms of energy flows and the usage of the different components of the thermal system. From those results, conclusions are derived for the sizing of components to meet the requirements of electric HD truck applications.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"72 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141688680","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Axel Sturm, Gerrit Brandes, Marcel Sander, Roman Henze, F. Küçükay
Electrified drives will change significantly in the wake of the further introduction of automated driving functions. Precise drive dimensioning, taking automated driving into account, opens up further potential in terms of drive operation and efficiency as well as optimal component design. Central element for unlocking the dimensioning potentials is the knowledge about the driving functions and their application. In this paper the implications of automated driving on the drive and component design are discussed. A process and a virtual toolchain for electric drive development from concept optimization to detailed dimensioning validation is presented. The process is subdivided into a concept optimization part for finding the optimal drive topology and layout and a detailed prototype environment, where more detailed component models can be assessed in customer operation to enable representative component dimensioning. Furthermore, the detailed simulation allows the drive investigation in representative customer operation as well as automated driving functions in terms of a software in the loop simulation. The process is used for the optimal dimensioning of a battery electric vehicle of the D-segment. The work focusses on a highway pilot function, developed at the Institute of Automotive Engineering of the Technische Universität Braunschweig. The optimal drive configuration can later be transferred to the prototype dimensioning. The simulation of automated driving function operation is based on a vehicle following scenario which employs statistical human behavior in the target vehicle and a sliding mode ACC in the ego vehicle. This methodology is particularly suitable for determining load spectra, which in turn can be used as test specifications for the strength simulation or endurance testing of the electric drive. Furthermore, simulation results can be used for the definition of representative cycles applicable for the concept optimization. The results of both processes will be compared and discussed in detail with an emphasis on efficiency, performance and load spectra.
随着自动驾驶功能的进一步引入，电气化驱动装置将发生重大变化。在考虑到自动驾驶功能的前提下进行精确的传动装置尺寸设计，可进一步提高传动装置的运行和效率，并优化部件设计。挖掘尺寸设计潜力的核心要素是对驾驶功能及其应用的了解。本文讨论了自动驾驶对驱动和部件设计的影响。本文介绍了从概念优化到详细尺寸验证的电力驱动开发流程和虚拟工具链。该流程被细分为概念优化部分和详细原型环境，前者用于寻找最佳驱动拓扑结构和布局，后者用于在客户操作中评估更详细的组件模型，以确定具有代表性的组件尺寸。此外，在详细模拟中，还可以对具有代表性的客户运行情况进行驱动研究，并通过环路模拟软件实现自动驱动功能。该过程用于优化 D 级电池电动汽车的尺寸。这项工作的重点是布伦瑞克工业大学汽车工程研究所开发的高速公路试验功能。最佳驱动配置随后可转移到原型车的尺寸设计中。自动驾驶功能的模拟操作基于车辆跟随场景，该场景采用了目标车辆中的人类行为统计和自我车辆中的滑动模式 ACC。这种方法尤其适用于确定负载频谱，而负载频谱又可用作电驱动强度模拟或耐久性测试的测试规格。此外，模拟结果还可用于定义适用于概念优化的代表性循环。我们将对两种方法的结果进行比较和详细讨论，重点是效率、性能和负载谱。
{"title":"Optimal and Prototype Dimensioning of Electrified Drives for Automated Driving","authors":"Axel Sturm, Gerrit Brandes, Marcel Sander, Roman Henze, F. Küçükay","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3021","url":null,"abstract":"Electrified drives will change significantly in the wake of the further introduction of automated driving functions. Precise drive dimensioning, taking automated driving into account, opens up further potential in terms of drive operation and efficiency as well as optimal component design. Central element for unlocking the dimensioning potentials is the knowledge about the driving functions and their application. In this paper the implications of automated driving on the drive and component design are discussed. A process and a virtual toolchain for electric drive development from concept optimization to detailed dimensioning validation is presented. The process is subdivided into a concept optimization part for finding the optimal drive topology and layout and a detailed prototype environment, where more detailed component models can be assessed in customer operation to enable representative component dimensioning. Furthermore, the detailed simulation allows the drive investigation in representative customer operation as well as automated driving functions in terms of a software in the loop simulation. The process is used for the optimal dimensioning of a battery electric vehicle of the D-segment. The work focusses on a highway pilot function, developed at the Institute of Automotive Engineering of the Technische Universität Braunschweig. The optimal drive configuration can later be transferred to the prototype dimensioning. The simulation of automated driving function operation is based on a vehicle following scenario which employs statistical human behavior in the target vehicle and a sliding mode ACC in the ego vehicle. This methodology is particularly suitable for determining load spectra, which in turn can be used as test specifications for the strength simulation or endurance testing of the electric drive. Furthermore, simulation results can be used for the definition of representative cycles applicable for the concept optimization. The results of both processes will be compared and discussed in detail with an emphasis on efficiency, performance and load spectra.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"2 12","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141684870","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Mona Hellstern, Stefan Langhanki, Florian Grün, Reiner Kriesten, Eric Sax
The UN R155 regulation is the first automotive cybersecurity regulation and has made security a mandatory approval criterion for new vehicle types. This establishes internationally harmonized security requirements for market approval, presenting a challenge for manufacturers and suppliers to demonstrate compliance throughout the product life cycle. An issued type approval is internationally recognized by the member states of the UN 1958 Agreement. International recognition implies that uniform assessment criteria are applied to demonstrate compliance and to decide whether security efforts are sufficient. Independent accredited assessors assess the security engineering results during type approval. Considering the risk-based approach of ISO/SAE 21434 to security engineering, assessing whether threats have been appropriately addressed is a challenge. While there are currently no uniform assessment criteria at product level, the question arises as to which development artifacts serve as indicators for determining the efficacy of mitigation strategies. In response to this challenge, the paper conducts an analysis of existing security concepts of the automotive security standard ISO/SAE 21434 and the Information Technology Security Evaluation Standard ISO 15408 (Common Criteria) and therefore provides an insight into the state-of-the-art of security evaluation methods. The overall objective is to derive applicable assessment criteria and recommendations for the UN R155 approval while taking into account relevant security properties that help to decide on the sufficiency of security measures. These recommendations aim to enhance the comprehensiveness of the security assessment associated with UN R155, fostering a more uniform approach to evaluating cybersecurity in the context of vehicle type approvals.
UN R155 法规是首个汽车网络安全法规，并将安全性作为新车型的强制性审批标准。这为市场审批确立了国际统一的安全要求，为制造商和供应商在整个产品生命周期内证明合规性提出了挑战。已签发的型式批准书在国际上得到联合国 1958 年协议成员国的承认。国际认可意味着要采用统一的评估标准来证明合规性，并决定安全措施是否充分。在型式批准过程中，独立的认证评估人员会对安全工程结果进行评估。考虑到 ISO/SAE 21434 对安全工程采用基于风险的方法，评估威胁是否已得到适当处理是一项挑战。虽然目前在产品层面没有统一的评估标准，但问题是哪些开发工件可作为确定缓解策略有效性的指标。为应对这一挑战，本文对汽车安全标准 ISO/SAE 21434 和信息技术安全评估标准 ISO 15408（通用标准）的现有安全概念进行了分析，从而深入了解了安全评估方法的最新进展。总体目标是为 UN R155 批准制定适用的评估标准和建议，同时考虑到有助于决定安全措施是否充分的相关安全属性。这些建议旨在提高与 UN R155 相关的安全评估的全面性，促进在车辆类型批准方面采用更加统一的网络安全评估方法。
{"title":"Cybersecurity Approval Criteria: Application of UN R155","authors":"Mona Hellstern, Stefan Langhanki, Florian Grün, Reiner Kriesten, Eric Sax","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2983","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2983","url":null,"abstract":"The UN R155 regulation is the first automotive cybersecurity regulation and has made security a mandatory approval criterion for new vehicle types. This establishes internationally harmonized security requirements for market approval, presenting a challenge for manufacturers and suppliers to demonstrate compliance throughout the product life cycle. An issued type approval is internationally recognized by the member states of the UN 1958 Agreement. International recognition implies that uniform assessment criteria are applied to demonstrate compliance and to decide whether security efforts are sufficient. Independent accredited assessors assess the security engineering results during type approval. Considering the risk-based approach of ISO/SAE 21434 to security engineering, assessing whether threats have been appropriately addressed is a challenge. While there are currently no uniform assessment criteria at product level, the question arises as to which development artifacts serve as indicators for determining the efficacy of mitigation strategies. In response to this challenge, the paper conducts an analysis of existing security concepts of the automotive security standard ISO/SAE 21434 and the Information Technology Security Evaluation Standard ISO 15408 (Common Criteria) and therefore provides an insight into the state-of-the-art of security evaluation methods. The overall objective is to derive applicable assessment criteria and recommendations for the UN R155 approval while taking into account relevant security properties that help to decide on the sufficiency of security measures. These recommendations aim to enhance the comprehensiveness of the security assessment associated with UN R155, fostering a more uniform approach to evaluating cybersecurity in the context of vehicle type approvals.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"22 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141685767","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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