This paper presents a novel and robust approach to estimate both the side-slip gradient and the lateral velocity by integrating radar-doppler measurements into a vehicle motion observer. In ego-motion estimation the side-slip gradient is used to model the lateral velocity of the vehicle, since it cannot be measured directly. The algorithm only requires low-dynamic, steady-state excitation and is based on an adaptive Kalman-Filter assuring high accuracy and stability. The number of radar sensors can be chosen arbitrarily. The algorithm has shown to estimate the side-slip gradient within 10% of its true value. It also rejects radar outliers and does not depend on permanent availability of the radar sensors. The approach requires little tuning which makes it applicable to mass-produced vehicles.
{"title":"Radar-Based Approach for Side-Slip Gradient Estimation","authors":"Luis Diener, Jens Kalkkuhl, Thomas Schirle","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2976","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2976","url":null,"abstract":"This paper presents a novel and robust approach to estimate both the side-slip gradient and the lateral velocity by integrating radar-doppler measurements into a vehicle motion observer. In ego-motion estimation the side-slip gradient is used to model the lateral velocity of the vehicle, since it cannot be measured directly. The algorithm only requires low-dynamic, steady-state excitation and is based on an adaptive Kalman-Filter assuring high accuracy and stability. The number of radar sensors can be chosen arbitrarily. The algorithm has shown to estimate the side-slip gradient within 10% of its true value. It also rejects radar outliers and does not depend on permanent availability of the radar sensors. The approach requires little tuning which makes it applicable to mass-produced vehicles.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"27 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141685420","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Tim Herold, Patrick Noone, Christian Beidl, Thomas Boldt, Michael Hochholzner, Sinisa Kontin
Previous studies have shown that dosing AdBlue into the exhaust system of diesel engines to reduce nitrogen oxides can lead to an increase in the number of particles (PN). In addition to the influencing factors of exhaust gas temperature, exhaust gas mass flow and dosing quantity, the dosed medium itself (AdBlue) is not considered as a possible influence due to its regulation in ISO-standard 22241. However, as the standard specifies limit value ranges for the individual regulated properties and components for newly sold AdBlue, in reality there is still some margin in the composition.This paper investigates the particle number increase due to AdBlue dosing using several CPCs. The increase in PN is determined by measuring the number of particles after DPF and thus directly before dosing as well as tailpipe. Several AdBlue products from different sources and countries are measured and their composition is also analyzed with regard to the limit values regulated in the standard. This shows that differences in the PN-increase can be determined for the various products. In addition, two measurements are carried out with pure water as a main component of AdBlue in the form of single and double-distilled water. Interestingly, the dosing of pure water also shows an increase in PN depending on the purity of the water. Furthermore, two AdBlue products are artificially aged in order to violate the standardized limit values, which is a feasible use case with regard to ISC tests, and subsequently measured. Since these impurities cannot be influenced but have a noticeable effect on the measured PN, it is important to quantify this and, if necessary, to take it into account in legislation.
{"title":"Impact of AdBlue Composition and Water Purity on Particle Number Increase","authors":"Tim Herold, Patrick Noone, Christian Beidl, Thomas Boldt, Michael Hochholzner, Sinisa Kontin","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3012","url":null,"abstract":"Previous studies have shown that dosing AdBlue into the exhaust system of diesel engines to reduce nitrogen oxides can lead to an increase in the number of particles (PN). In addition to the influencing factors of exhaust gas temperature, exhaust gas mass flow and dosing quantity, the dosed medium itself (AdBlue) is not considered as a possible influence due to its regulation in ISO-standard 22241. However, as the standard specifies limit value ranges for the individual regulated properties and components for newly sold AdBlue, in reality there is still some margin in the composition.This paper investigates the particle number increase due to AdBlue dosing using several CPCs. The increase in PN is determined by measuring the number of particles after DPF and thus directly before dosing as well as tailpipe. Several AdBlue products from different sources and countries are measured and their composition is also analyzed with regard to the limit values regulated in the standard. This shows that differences in the PN-increase can be determined for the various products. In addition, two measurements are carried out with pure water as a main component of AdBlue in the form of single and double-distilled water. Interestingly, the dosing of pure water also shows an increase in PN depending on the purity of the water. Furthermore, two AdBlue products are artificially aged in order to violate the standardized limit values, which is a feasible use case with regard to ISC tests, and subsequently measured. Since these impurities cannot be influenced but have a noticeable effect on the measured PN, it is important to quantify this and, if necessary, to take it into account in legislation.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"68 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141688293","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Lennart Kopp, Patrick Harfmann, Lucas Niederberger, Timm Schwämmle, Markus Kley
The automotive industry is continuously evolving, demanding innovative approaches to enhance testing methodologies and preventively identify potential issues. This paper proposes an advanced test approach in the area of the overall vehicle system including the steering system and powertrain on a Road to Rig test bench. The research aims to revolutionize the conventional testing process by identifying faults at an early stage and eliminating the need to rely solely on field tests. The motivation behind this research is to optimize the test bench setup and bring it even closer to real field tests. Key highlights of the publication include the introduction of an expanded load spectrum, incorporating both steering angle and speed parameters along the test track. The load includes different route and driving profiles like on a freeway, overland and city drive in combination with the steering angles. Furthermore, for the first instance, specific driving manoeuvres, including slalom driving and autonomous parking, can now be simulated and tested. Also, there are critical driving scenarios like the standardized severe lane-change manoeuvre. This innovative approach not only refines the accuracy of steering simulations but also provides a comprehensive representation of real-world driving conditions. The paper also outlines the development and verification of a design specifically tailored for the test bench environment. This comprehensive approach ensures the reliability and applicability of the proposed steering simulation methodology. The integration of multibody simulations further enhances the study by elucidating the individual component loads.
汽车行业在不断发展，需要创新的方法来加强测试方法和预防性地发现潜在问题。本文在 "从道路到钻机"（Road to Rig）试验台上提出了一种先进的整体车辆系统（包括转向系统和动力总成）测试方法。该研究旨在彻底改变传统的测试流程，在早期阶段识别故障，无需完全依赖现场测试。这项研究的动机是优化测试台的设置，使其更加接近真实的现场测试。该出版物的主要亮点包括引入了一个扩展的负载谱，其中包含了测试轨道上的转向角和速度参数。载荷包括不同的路线和驾驶情况，如高速公路、陆地和城市驾驶，并与转向角度相结合。此外，现在还可以首次模拟和测试特定的驾驶动作，包括回旋驾驶和自动泊车。此外，还有一些关键的驾驶场景，如标准化的严重变道操作。这种创新方法不仅提高了转向模拟的准确性，还全面反映了真实世界的驾驶条件。论文还概述了专为测试台环境定制的设计的开发和验证。这种综合方法确保了所提出的转向模拟方法的可靠性和适用性。多体模拟的集成通过阐明单个部件的负载进一步加强了研究。
{"title":"Evaluation and Simulation of wheel Steering Functionality on a Road to Rig Test Bench","authors":"Lennart Kopp, Patrick Harfmann, Lucas Niederberger, Timm Schwämmle, Markus Kley","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3000","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3000","url":null,"abstract":"The automotive industry is continuously evolving, demanding innovative approaches to enhance testing methodologies and preventively identify potential issues. This paper proposes an advanced test approach in the area of the overall vehicle system including the steering system and powertrain on a Road to Rig test bench. The research aims to revolutionize the conventional testing process by identifying faults at an early stage and eliminating the need to rely solely on field tests. The motivation behind this research is to optimize the test bench setup and bring it even closer to real field tests. Key highlights of the publication include the introduction of an expanded load spectrum, incorporating both steering angle and speed parameters along the test track. The load includes different route and driving profiles like on a freeway, overland and city drive in combination with the steering angles. Furthermore, for the first instance, specific driving manoeuvres, including slalom driving and autonomous parking, can now be simulated and tested. Also, there are critical driving scenarios like the standardized severe lane-change manoeuvre. This innovative approach not only refines the accuracy of steering simulations but also provides a comprehensive representation of real-world driving conditions. The paper also outlines the development and verification of a design specifically tailored for the test bench environment. This comprehensive approach ensures the reliability and applicability of the proposed steering simulation methodology. The integration of multibody simulations further enhances the study by elucidating the individual component loads.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"2 8","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141686147","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Magda Elvira Cassone Potenza, Maria Rosaria Gaballo, Jan N. Geiler, Marino Iacobazzi, Giovanni Cornetti, A. Kulzer
The hydrogen engine is one of the promising technologies that enables carbon-neutral mobility, especially in heavy-duty on- or off-road applications. In this paper, a methodological procedure for the design of the combustion system of a hydrogen-fueled, direct injection spark ignited commercial vehicle engine is described.In a preliminary step, the ability of the commercial 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code AVL FIRE Classic to reproduce the characteristics of the gas jet, introduced into a quiescent environment by a dedicated H2 injector, is established. This is based on two parts: Temporal and numerical discretization sensitivity analyses ensure that the spatial and temporal resolution of the simulations is adequate, and comparisons to a comprehensive set of experiments demonstrate the accuracy of the simulations. The measurements used for this purpose rely on the well-known Schlieren technique and use helium as a safe substitute for H2. They reveal how the jet properties depend on the ratio between injection and ambient pressure and how the jet can attach to the chamber roof or be focused depending on the exact position of the injector within its bore.The numerical recipe validated using the Schlieren measurements is then adapted for the calculation of the mixture formation in the engine combustion chamber. The investigations encompass variations of the degree of recess within the injector bore, starting with the default flush-mounted configuration, and different piston design concepts. Key performance indicators of the simulations are the interaction between injection and engine charge motion and the development of the mixture homogeneity. Test bench results such as exhaust emissions are correlated to the numerical output provided by the simulations.
氢气发动机是实现碳中和移动性的有前途的技术之一，特别是在重型公路或非公路应用中。本文介绍了氢燃料直喷式火花点火商用车发动机燃烧系统的设计方法。第一步，确定了商用三维计算流体动力学（CFD）代码 AVL FIRE Classic 重现气体射流特性的能力，气体射流由专用氢气喷射器引入静态环境。这基于两个部分：时间和数值离散敏感性分析确保模拟的空间和时间分辨率足够高，而与综合实验的比较则证明了模拟的准确性。为此目的而进行的测量依赖于著名的 Schlieren 技术，并使用氦气作为 H2 的安全替代品。这些测量结果揭示了喷射特性如何取决于喷射压力和环境压力之间的比率，以及喷射如何附着在燃烧室顶上或根据喷射器在其孔内的确切位置而聚焦。研究包括喷油器孔内凹陷程度的变化（从默认的齐平安装配置开始）以及不同的活塞设计概念。模拟的关键性能指标是喷射和发动机装料运动之间的相互作用以及混合气均匀性的发展。废气排放等试验台结果与模拟提供的数值输出相关联。
{"title":"The 3D-CFD Contribution to H\u00002\u0000 Engine Development for CV and Off-Road Application","authors":"Magda Elvira Cassone Potenza, Maria Rosaria Gaballo, Jan N. Geiler, Marino Iacobazzi, Giovanni Cornetti, A. Kulzer","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3017","url":null,"abstract":"The hydrogen engine is one of the promising technologies that enables carbon-neutral mobility, especially in heavy-duty on- or off-road applications. In this paper, a methodological procedure for the design of the combustion system of a hydrogen-fueled, direct injection spark ignited commercial vehicle engine is described.In a preliminary step, the ability of the commercial 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code AVL FIRE Classic to reproduce the characteristics of the gas jet, introduced into a quiescent environment by a dedicated H2 injector, is established. This is based on two parts: Temporal and numerical discretization sensitivity analyses ensure that the spatial and temporal resolution of the simulations is adequate, and comparisons to a comprehensive set of experiments demonstrate the accuracy of the simulations. The measurements used for this purpose rely on the well-known Schlieren technique and use helium as a safe substitute for H2. They reveal how the jet properties depend on the ratio between injection and ambient pressure and how the jet can attach to the chamber roof or be focused depending on the exact position of the injector within its bore.The numerical recipe validated using the Schlieren measurements is then adapted for the calculation of the mixture formation in the engine combustion chamber. The investigations encompass variations of the degree of recess within the injector bore, starting with the default flush-mounted configuration, and different piston design concepts. Key performance indicators of the simulations are the interaction between injection and engine charge motion and the development of the mixture homogeneity. Test bench results such as exhaust emissions are correlated to the numerical output provided by the simulations.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"23 37","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141684753","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
To shape future mobility MAHLE has committed itself to foster wireless charging for electrical vehicles. The standardized wireless power transfer of 11 kW at a voltage level of 800 V significantly improves the end user experience for charging an electric vehicle without the need to handle a connector and cable anymore. Combined with automated parking and autonomous driving systems, the challenge to charge fleets without user interaction is solved.Wireless charging is based on inductive power transfer. In the ground assembly’s (GA) power transfer coil, a magnetic field is generated which induces a voltage in the vehicle assembly (VA) power transfer coil. To transfer the power from grid to battery with a high efficiency up to 92% the power transfer coils are compensated with resonant circuits.In this paper the Differential-Inductive-Positioning-System (DIPS) to align a vehicle on the GA for parking will be presented. This system utilizes five standardized magnetic fields which are generated within the GA. On the VA induced voltages by the standardized magnetic fields are measured with two crossed coils. A dedicated coil in the GA provides the (magnetic) field for the steering and braking information. The stop signal for the vehicle is provided by an array of four coils in the GA. Additionally to private garages, the DIPS is designed for multi-GA parking spots as well. The special differential signal processing makes the procedure extremely robust against metallic foreign objects. The high accuracy of the DIPS allows the driver to align the vehicle at the first attempt. The automized pairing process enables a charging process without interaction of the driver.
为了塑造未来的移动性，马勒致力于推动电动汽车无线充电的发展。在 800 V 的电压水平下，11 kW 的标准化无线功率传输大大改善了最终用户为电动汽车充电的体验，而无需再处理连接器和电缆。结合自动泊车和自动驾驶系统，无需用户交互即可为车队充电的难题迎刃而解。在地面总成（GA）的电力传输线圈中，会产生一个磁场，该磁场会在车辆总成（VA）的电力传输线圈中感应出一个电压。为了以高达 92% 的效率将电能从电网传输到电池，功率传输线圈采用谐振电路进行补偿。本文将介绍差分感应定位系统 (DIPS)，该系统用于将车辆对准 GA 进行停放。该系统利用 GA 内部产生的五个标准化磁场。通过两个交叉线圈测量标准化磁场在 VA 上产生的感应电压。自动导航仪中的专用线圈为转向和制动信息提供（磁）场。车辆停止信号由 GA 中的四个线圈阵列提供。除私人车库外，DIPS 还设计用于多 GA 停车场。特殊的差分信号处理使该程序对金属异物具有极强的抵抗力。DIPS 的高精确度使驾驶员在第一次尝试时就能对准车辆。自动配对过程可实现充电过程，而无需与驾驶员互动。
{"title":"Standardized Differential Inductive Positioning System for Wireless Charging of Electric Vehicles","authors":"Mike Boettigheimer, Philip Grabherr","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2987","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2987","url":null,"abstract":"To shape future mobility MAHLE has committed itself to foster wireless charging for electrical vehicles. The standardized wireless power transfer of 11 kW at a voltage level of 800 V significantly improves the end user experience for charging an electric vehicle without the need to handle a connector and cable anymore. Combined with automated parking and autonomous driving systems, the challenge to charge fleets without user interaction is solved.Wireless charging is based on inductive power transfer. In the ground assembly’s (GA) power transfer coil, a magnetic field is generated which induces a voltage in the vehicle assembly (VA) power transfer coil. To transfer the power from grid to battery with a high efficiency up to 92% the power transfer coils are compensated with resonant circuits.In this paper the Differential-Inductive-Positioning-System (DIPS) to align a vehicle on the GA for parking will be presented. This system utilizes five standardized magnetic fields which are generated within the GA. On the VA induced voltages by the standardized magnetic fields are measured with two crossed coils. A dedicated coil in the GA provides the (magnetic) field for the steering and braking information. The stop signal for the vehicle is provided by an array of four coils in the GA. Additionally to private garages, the DIPS is designed for multi-GA parking spots as well. The special differential signal processing makes the procedure extremely robust against metallic foreign objects. The high accuracy of the DIPS allows the driver to align the vehicle at the first attempt. The automized pairing process enables a charging process without interaction of the driver.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"355 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141686331","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Axel Sturm, M. Kascha, M. A. Mejri, Roman Henze, L. Heister, A. Mueck
In this paper, we present the concept of automated park and charge functions in two different use cases. The main use case is automated driving in production and the other use case is within automated valet parking in parking garages. The automated park and charge in production is developed in the scope of the publicly funded project E-SELF in Germany. The central aim of this project is the development and integration of automated driving at the end-of-line in the production at Ford Motor Company's manufacturing plant in Cologne. The driving function thereby is mostly based upon automated valet driving with an infrastructure-based perception and motion planning. Especially for electric vehicles, the state of charge of the battery is critical, since energy is needed for all testing and driving operations at the end-of-line. In addition, long shipping, combined with a specific state of charge requirement at customer delivery, require recharging at the production facility. This recharging process is also an automated process with a robot and demands direct connection to the driving function. The main scope of this paper is the introduction of an energy demand calculation for the necessary charging operations. The developed tool allows multiple analyses for identifying further potentials in the production line. Based on a study of a Ford Mach-E it showed, that the highest energy demands are due to battery self-discharging during standstill, especially in the summer months. For a transport to the customer by train and truck, an energy demand of 2kWh within the production facility is estimated. Longer transport times, e.g. when the vehicle is shipped to the customer, the energy demand increases up to 4 kWh. Depending on the vehicle and application, the developed toolchain allows future optimization of recharging processes and also promotes automated park and charging, where the demands can be individually calculated by the park management system.
{"title":"Automated Park and Charge: Concept and Energy Demand Calculation","authors":"Axel Sturm, M. Kascha, M. A. Mejri, Roman Henze, L. Heister, A. Mueck","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2988","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2988","url":null,"abstract":"In this paper, we present the concept of automated park and charge functions in two different use cases. The main use case is automated driving in production and the other use case is within automated valet parking in parking garages. The automated park and charge in production is developed in the scope of the publicly funded project E-SELF in Germany. The central aim of this project is the development and integration of automated driving at the end-of-line in the production at Ford Motor Company's manufacturing plant in Cologne. The driving function thereby is mostly based upon automated valet driving with an infrastructure-based perception and motion planning. Especially for electric vehicles, the state of charge of the battery is critical, since energy is needed for all testing and driving operations at the end-of-line. In addition, long shipping, combined with a specific state of charge requirement at customer delivery, require recharging at the production facility. This recharging process is also an automated process with a robot and demands direct connection to the driving function. The main scope of this paper is the introduction of an energy demand calculation for the necessary charging operations. The developed tool allows multiple analyses for identifying further potentials in the production line. Based on a study of a Ford Mach-E it showed, that the highest energy demands are due to battery self-discharging during standstill, especially in the summer months. For a transport to the customer by train and truck, an energy demand of 2kWh within the production facility is estimated. Longer transport times, e.g. when the vehicle is shipped to the customer, the energy demand increases up to 4 kWh. Depending on the vehicle and application, the developed toolchain allows future optimization of recharging processes and also promotes automated park and charging, where the demands can be individually calculated by the park management system.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"333 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141686915","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Mike Reinecke, Akif Karayel, Hendrik von Schöning, Uwe Schaefer, M. Moullion, Victor Faessler, R. Lehmann
With the automotive industry’s increasing focus on electromobility and the growing share of electric cars, new challenges are arising for the development of electric motors. The requirements for torque and power of traction motors are constantly growing, while installation space, costs and weight are increasingly becoming limiting factors. Moreover, there is an inherent conflict in the design between power density and efficiency of an electric motor. Thus, a main focus in today’s development lies on space-saving and yet effective and innovative cooling systems. This paper presents an approach for a multi-physical optimization that combines the domains of electromagnetics and thermodynamics. Based on a reference machine, this simulative study examins a total of nine different stator cooling concepts varying the cooling duct positions and end-winding cooling concepts. To ensure the highest possible comparability, the rotor geometry as well as the overall dimensions in terms of outer diameter and length of the electric machine remain unchanged. The stator design is slightly adjusted to achieve same maximum torque and winding cross-section. Initially, the electromagnetic effects of various cooling slot positions are investigated and compared with respect to efficiency and individual loss distribution. Subsequently, the thermal performance is analyzed by means of fluid-dynamical simulations to quantify the heat transfer and assess the cooling effectivity. Eventually, these results are merged in a lumped parameter thermal network model. Accounting for both the distinguished electromagnetic and thermal benefits and disadvantages, a final study is presented evaluating the continuous power capability of the different concepts at equal boundary conditions.
{"title":"Investigation of Stator Cooling Concepts of an Electric Machine for Maximization of Continuous Power","authors":"Mike Reinecke, Akif Karayel, Hendrik von Schöning, Uwe Schaefer, M. Moullion, Victor Faessler, R. Lehmann","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3014","url":null,"abstract":"With the automotive industry’s increasing focus on electromobility and the growing share of electric cars, new challenges are arising for the development of electric motors. The requirements for torque and power of traction motors are constantly growing, while installation space, costs and weight are increasingly becoming limiting factors. Moreover, there is an inherent conflict in the design between power density and efficiency of an electric motor. Thus, a main focus in today’s development lies on space-saving and yet effective and innovative cooling systems. This paper presents an approach for a multi-physical optimization that combines the domains of electromagnetics and thermodynamics. Based on a reference machine, this simulative study examins a total of nine different stator cooling concepts varying the cooling duct positions and end-winding cooling concepts. To ensure the highest possible comparability, the rotor geometry as well as the overall dimensions in terms of outer diameter and length of the electric machine remain unchanged. The stator design is slightly adjusted to achieve same maximum torque and winding cross-section. Initially, the electromagnetic effects of various cooling slot positions are investigated and compared with respect to efficiency and individual loss distribution. Subsequently, the thermal performance is analyzed by means of fluid-dynamical simulations to quantify the heat transfer and assess the cooling effectivity. Eventually, these results are merged in a lumped parameter thermal network model. Accounting for both the distinguished electromagnetic and thermal benefits and disadvantages, a final study is presented evaluating the continuous power capability of the different concepts at equal boundary conditions.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"6 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141687300","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The mobility industry with its entire ecosystem is currently striving towards sustainable solutions, which leads to a continuous production ramp-up of electrified vehicles. The parallel extension of the charging infrastructure is needed but faced with various challenges like high investments and power limitations of local electrical grid connection. To fulfill the user requirements of electrified vehicle owners, large-scaled but cost-efficient charging systems for different parking scenarios in residential buildings, at work or at the destination are essential. MAHLE chargeBIG offers large-scaled and centralized charging infrastructure with more than 2,000 already installed charging points since 2019. This paper is a first scientific publication with an in-dept evaluation of the large-scaled charging infrastructure usage. Based on backend data of multiple MAHLE chargeBIG charging infrastructure installations with more than 600 charging points, more than 70,000 recorded charging events are analyzed. It proves that a single-phase charging concept offers sufficient charging power and is able to master multiple charging events by fulfilling customer requirements despite an unexpanded electrical grid infrastructure. As simulated in already published studies [1,2], 3-5 kW per vehicle are a sufficient charging power to recharge the daily electricity demand in employer parking areas with less than 15 kWh in average. In combination with smart charging algorithms, the system can avoid charging power limitations caused by the grid connection and allows the integration in smart grid company environments.
{"title":"Charging Infrastructure for Employer Parking – Real Data Analysis and Charging Algorithms for Future Customer Demands","authors":"Dennis Mehlig, Matthias Krumbholz, Max Gerstadt","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2980","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2980","url":null,"abstract":"The mobility industry with its entire ecosystem is currently striving towards sustainable solutions, which leads to a continuous production ramp-up of electrified vehicles. The parallel extension of the charging infrastructure is needed but faced with various challenges like high investments and power limitations of local electrical grid connection. To fulfill the user requirements of electrified vehicle owners, large-scaled but cost-efficient charging systems for different parking scenarios in residential buildings, at work or at the destination are essential. MAHLE chargeBIG offers large-scaled and centralized charging infrastructure with more than 2,000 already installed charging points since 2019. This paper is a first scientific publication with an in-dept evaluation of the large-scaled charging infrastructure usage. Based on backend data of multiple MAHLE chargeBIG charging infrastructure installations with more than 600 charging points, more than 70,000 recorded charging events are analyzed. It proves that a single-phase charging concept offers sufficient charging power and is able to master multiple charging events by fulfilling customer requirements despite an unexpanded electrical grid infrastructure. As simulated in already published studies [1,2], 3-5 kW per vehicle are a sufficient charging power to recharge the daily electricity demand in employer parking areas with less than 15 kWh in average. In combination with smart charging algorithms, the system can avoid charging power limitations caused by the grid connection and allows the integration in smart grid company environments.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"46 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141687403","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Inti Runa Supa Stölben, M. Beltle, Stefan Tenbohlen
The ongoing energy transition will have a profound impact on future mobility, with electrification playing a key role. Battery electric vehicles (EVs) are the dominant technology, relying on the conversion of alternating current (AC) from the grid to direct current (DC) to charge the traction battery. This process involves power electronic components such as rectifiers and DC/DC converters operating at high switching frequencies in the kHz range. Fast switching is essential to minimise losses and improve efficiency, but it might also generate electro-magnetic interferences (EMI). Hence, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) testing is essential to ensure reliable system operations and to meet international standards. During DC charging, the AC/DC conversion takes place off-board in the charging station, allowing for better cooling and larger components, resulting in increased power transfer, currently up to 350 kW. The EMC requirements for this charging method are outlined in IEC 61851-21-2. This paper presents possible test setups supporting the standard. Furthermore, it emphasizes the need for measurements not only in controlled laboratories, but also at real charging stations within their specific environments. Therefore, a mobile test setup is introduced and validated. It can be connected to any public DC charging station using a European standard plug CCS-2 (Combined Charging System 2). In addition, the emerging concept of Vehicle to Grid (V2G) is gaining prominence. The objective is to leverage electric vehicles as mobile energy storage for grid optimization and stabilization. The proposed test setup also allows to take these operating states into account concerning conducted interference emissions. As the transition to electric mobility progresses, these investigations contribute ensuring the seamless integration of EVs into the evolving energy landscape.
{"title":"Electromagnetic Compatibility Assessment of Electric Vehicles during DC-Charging with European Combined Charging System","authors":"Inti Runa Supa Stölben, M. Beltle, Stefan Tenbohlen","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3008","url":null,"abstract":"The ongoing energy transition will have a profound impact on future mobility, with electrification playing a key role. Battery electric vehicles (EVs) are the dominant technology, relying on the conversion of alternating current (AC) from the grid to direct current (DC) to charge the traction battery. This process involves power electronic components such as rectifiers and DC/DC converters operating at high switching frequencies in the kHz range. Fast switching is essential to minimise losses and improve efficiency, but it might also generate electro-magnetic interferences (EMI). Hence, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) testing is essential to ensure reliable system operations and to meet international standards. During DC charging, the AC/DC conversion takes place off-board in the charging station, allowing for better cooling and larger components, resulting in increased power transfer, currently up to 350 kW. The EMC requirements for this charging method are outlined in IEC 61851-21-2. This paper presents possible test setups supporting the standard. Furthermore, it emphasizes the need for measurements not only in controlled laboratories, but also at real charging stations within their specific environments. Therefore, a mobile test setup is introduced and validated. It can be connected to any public DC charging station using a European standard plug CCS-2 (Combined Charging System 2). In addition, the emerging concept of Vehicle to Grid (V2G) is gaining prominence. The objective is to leverage electric vehicles as mobile energy storage for grid optimization and stabilization. The proposed test setup also allows to take these operating states into account concerning conducted interference emissions. As the transition to electric mobility progresses, these investigations contribute ensuring the seamless integration of EVs into the evolving energy landscape.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"33 8","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141687541","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
On the path to decarbonizing road transport, electric commercial vehicles will play a significant role. The first applications were directed to the smaller trucks for distribution traffic with relatively moderate driving and range requirements. Meanwhile, the first generation of a complete portfolio of truck sizes has been developed and is available on the market. In these early applications, many compromises were made to overcome component availability, but today, the supply chain has evolved to address the specific needs of electric trucks. With that, optimization toward higher performance and lower costs is moving to the next level. For long-haul trucks, efficiency is a driving factor for the total cost of ownership (TCO) due to the importance of the energy costs [1]. Besides the propulsion system, other related systems must be optimized for higher efficiency. This includes thermal management since the thermal management components consume energy and have a direct impact on the driving range. The main function of thermal management is to protect the components to ensure a long lifetime, especially in the case of the battery. The driver's comfort is another important purpose of the thermal management system (TMS). In the present study, the design development of the TMS layout for an electric heavy-duty (HD) truck is described. The modeled TMS is challenged under different operation conditions, including demanding drive cycles as well as fast charging events. The results are analyzed in terms of energy flows and the usage of the different components of the thermal system. From those results, conclusions are derived for the sizing of components to meet the requirements of electric HD truck applications.
在道路运输去碳化的道路上，电动商用车将发挥重要作用。首批应用主要针对对行驶和续航能力要求相对较低的小型配送卡车。与此同时，第一代完整的卡车尺寸组合已经开发完成并投放市场。在这些早期应用中，为了克服零部件供应问题，我们做出了许多妥协，但如今，供应链已经发展到可以满足电动卡车的特殊需求。因此，为实现更高性能和更低成本而进行的优化正迈向新的台阶。对于长途运输卡车来说，由于能源成本的重要性，效率是总拥有成本（TCO）的驱动因素[1]。除推进系统外，还必须优化其他相关系统，以提高效率。这包括热管理，因为热管理组件消耗能源并直接影响行驶里程。热管理的主要功能是保护部件，以确保较长的使用寿命，尤其是电池。驾驶员的舒适度是热管理系统（TMS）的另一个重要目的。本研究介绍了电动重型（HD）卡车 TMS 布局的设计开发。在不同的运行条件下，包括苛刻的驱动循环和快速充电事件，对模型 TMS 提出了挑战。从能量流和热力系统不同组件的使用方面对结果进行了分析。根据这些结果，得出了如何确定组件尺寸以满足电动 HD 卡车应用要求的结论。
{"title":"Thermal Management System for Battery Electric Heavy-Duty Trucks","authors":"Daniel Gajowski, Wolfgang Wenzel, Matthias Hütter","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2971","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2971","url":null,"abstract":"On the path to decarbonizing road transport, electric commercial vehicles will play a significant role. The first applications were directed to the smaller trucks for distribution traffic with relatively moderate driving and range requirements. Meanwhile, the first generation of a complete portfolio of truck sizes has been developed and is available on the market. In these early applications, many compromises were made to overcome component availability, but today, the supply chain has evolved to address the specific needs of electric trucks. With that, optimization toward higher performance and lower costs is moving to the next level. For long-haul trucks, efficiency is a driving factor for the total cost of ownership (TCO) due to the importance of the energy costs [1]. Besides the propulsion system, other related systems must be optimized for higher efficiency. This includes thermal management since the thermal management components consume energy and have a direct impact on the driving range. The main function of thermal management is to protect the components to ensure a long lifetime, especially in the case of the battery. The driver's comfort is another important purpose of the thermal management system (TMS). In the present study, the design development of the TMS layout for an electric heavy-duty (HD) truck is described. The modeled TMS is challenged under different operation conditions, including demanding drive cycles as well as fast charging events. The results are analyzed in terms of energy flows and the usage of the different components of the thermal system. From those results, conclusions are derived for the sizing of components to meet the requirements of electric HD truck applications.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"72 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141688680","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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