This study aims to present a virtual numerical validation procedure for durability in brake system components, using artificial neural networks and based on experimental bench tests. The study focus was concentrated on the drum brake spider component, responsible for mechanically connecting the brake system subassemblies. To develop the validation procedure, engineering software such as ABAQUS, Fe-Safe, Minitab, and MATLAB was used. These were crucial for carrying out stress analyses, statistical data validation, and construction of an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) capable of predicting finite element responses, fatigue life, and supporting real-time decision-making for structural validation of mechanical components. The results obtained from these tools allowed the calibration of a numerical virtual model using the Finite Element Method (FEM) based on mechanical theories and results obtained in bench tests with the brake system, thus, a finite element database was generated for the application of the ANN, containing 130 data from a total of 4,800 possible combinations. The training, validation, and testing of the ANN were determined using a performance analysis algorithm. Finally, the results obtained with the artificial neural network were compared with the results of finite elements and computational fatigue life. The efficiency of the real-time response prediction method was measured using the Mean Squared Error (MSE). With the use of ANN, it was possible to obtain an average error of 0.85% for predicting maximum principal stress and an error of 10.33% for predicting fatigue life. For the classification of fatigue life results, the ANN presented an accuracy of 100%, enabling decision-making in real-time.
{"title":"Application of Neural Networks for Real-Time Decision Support in Virtual Approval of Brake Components","authors":"Lucas Marcon, Alexandre Vieceli, Leandro Corso","doi":"10.4271/2024-36-0306","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-36-0306","url":null,"abstract":"This study aims to present a virtual numerical validation procedure for durability in brake system components, using artificial neural networks and based on experimental bench tests. The study focus was concentrated on the drum brake spider component, responsible for mechanically connecting the brake system subassemblies. To develop the validation procedure, engineering software such as ABAQUS, Fe-Safe, Minitab, and MATLAB was used. These were crucial for carrying out stress analyses, statistical data validation, and construction of an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) capable of predicting finite element responses, fatigue life, and supporting real-time decision-making for structural validation of mechanical components. The results obtained from these tools allowed the calibration of a numerical virtual model using the Finite Element Method (FEM) based on mechanical theories and results obtained in bench tests with the brake system, thus, a finite element database was generated for the application of the ANN, containing 130 data from a total of 4,800 possible combinations. The training, validation, and testing of the ANN were determined using a performance analysis algorithm. Finally, the results obtained with the artificial neural network were compared with the results of finite elements and computational fatigue life. The efficiency of the real-time response prediction method was measured using the Mean Squared Error (MSE). With the use of ANN, it was possible to obtain an average error of 0.85% for predicting maximum principal stress and an error of 10.33% for predicting fatigue life. For the classification of fatigue life results, the ANN presented an accuracy of 100%, enabling decision-making in real-time.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-08-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141924445","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Eduardo Miranda Dias, Claudemir Rudek, Carlos Abílio Passos Travaglia, André Rodrigues, Danilo Brito
In recent years, new technologies are being developed and applied to commercial vehicles. Such technologies support on development and implementation of new functions making these products safer, benefiting the society in general. One of the areas that can be mentioned is the vehicle safety. Among too many technologies, the emergency brake system is that one who came to support and assist drivers in critical situations that cannot be avoided. The Advanced Emergency Brake System, AEBS, consists of identifying other vehicles ahead, and, in case of detecting a risk of collision, automatically applies the service brakes to avoid accidents. The system works in situations when there is a sudden traffic stop, the vehicle is passing through intersections and when the driver distracts due to inappropriate use of mobile telephone devices. The aim of this work was to evaluate the emergency braking performance of a 6x4 tractor with a double semi-trailer, at flat asphalt. Both vehicles of combination were equipped with drum brakes. To monitor the braking performance, the vehicle speed, the brake temperature, and braking pressure were collected using, respectively, a global positioning system, GPS, thermocouples and pressure transducers. The dynamic tests were performed according to the ECE R131 European resolution, using a balloon car as target. An additional driving condition was simulated during the tests: elevated temperature level of the brakes. The tests led to the conclusion that the efficiency during emergency braking, under normal and critical conditions, fulfilled the requirements without any stability and drivability degradation. Regardless of the temperature, the system remained operating within the established technical limits. It was therefore concluded that the emergency braking system, on vehicle combination using drum brakes, met the requirements established by resolution ECE R131 in a fully satisfactory manner.
{"title":"Emergency Braking System: Verification of system behavior on commercial vehicles equipped with drum braking system","authors":"Eduardo Miranda Dias, Claudemir Rudek, Carlos Abílio Passos Travaglia, André Rodrigues, Danilo Brito","doi":"10.4271/2024-36-0309","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-36-0309","url":null,"abstract":"In recent years, new technologies are being developed and applied to commercial vehicles. Such technologies support on development and implementation of new functions making these products safer, benefiting the society in general. One of the areas that can be mentioned is the vehicle safety. Among too many technologies, the emergency brake system is that one who came to support and assist drivers in critical situations that cannot be avoided. The Advanced Emergency Brake System, AEBS, consists of identifying other vehicles ahead, and, in case of detecting a risk of collision, automatically applies the service brakes to avoid accidents. The system works in situations when there is a sudden traffic stop, the vehicle is passing through intersections and when the driver distracts due to inappropriate use of mobile telephone devices. The aim of this work was to evaluate the emergency braking performance of a 6x4 tractor with a double semi-trailer, at flat asphalt. Both vehicles of combination were equipped with drum brakes. To monitor the braking performance, the vehicle speed, the brake temperature, and braking pressure were collected using, respectively, a global positioning system, GPS, thermocouples and pressure transducers. The dynamic tests were performed according to the ECE R131 European resolution, using a balloon car as target. An additional driving condition was simulated during the tests: elevated temperature level of the brakes. The tests led to the conclusion that the efficiency during emergency braking, under normal and critical conditions, fulfilled the requirements without any stability and drivability degradation. Regardless of the temperature, the system remained operating within the established technical limits. It was therefore concluded that the emergency braking system, on vehicle combination using drum brakes, met the requirements established by resolution ECE R131 in a fully satisfactory manner.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-08-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141923476","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Within the heavy commercial vehicle sector, fleet availability stands as a crucial factor impacting the productivity and competitiveness of companies. Despite this, the core element of maintenance strategies applied in the sector still relies solely on mileage or component usage time. On the other hand, the evolution of the industry, particularly the advancement of Industry 4.0 enabling technologies such as sensorization embedded in components, now provides a vast amount of operational data. The severity levels of application, driving style influence, and vehicle operating conditions can be indicated through the treatment of these data. However, there is still little practical application of using this data for effective decision-making regarding maintenance strategy in the sector, correlating the severity level with component failure possibility. Seeking a disruptive approach to this scenario where data analysis supports decisions related to component maintenance strategy, a literature review was conducted to understand how aspects of Industry 4.0 and data analysis can influence maintenance strategies. As a result of this review, a methodology is proposed for applying structured data analysis based on a robust statistical foundation. A case study of applying this methodology is presented, with the analysis of operational data from a specific component installed in a fleet of heavy commercial vehicles. Through the application of statistical techniques, a variable representing component wear is correlated with variables describing application severity, demonstrating that enhancing maintenance strategies based on data analysis is feasible. With the increased accuracy of component maintenance criteria, a 10% increase in availability is estimated.
{"title":"Assets Maintenance Strategy Based on Operational Data Analysis","authors":"Ricardo de Moraes Seixas","doi":"10.4271/2024-36-0320","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-36-0320","url":null,"abstract":"Within the heavy commercial vehicle sector, fleet availability stands as a crucial factor impacting the productivity and competitiveness of companies. Despite this, the core element of maintenance strategies applied in the sector still relies solely on mileage or component usage time. On the other hand, the evolution of the industry, particularly the advancement of Industry 4.0 enabling technologies such as sensorization embedded in components, now provides a vast amount of operational data. The severity levels of application, driving style influence, and vehicle operating conditions can be indicated through the treatment of these data. However, there is still little practical application of using this data for effective decision-making regarding maintenance strategy in the sector, correlating the severity level with component failure possibility. Seeking a disruptive approach to this scenario where data analysis supports decisions related to component maintenance strategy, a literature review was conducted to understand how aspects of Industry 4.0 and data analysis can influence maintenance strategies. As a result of this review, a methodology is proposed for applying structured data analysis based on a robust statistical foundation. A case study of applying this methodology is presented, with the analysis of operational data from a specific component installed in a fleet of heavy commercial vehicles. Through the application of statistical techniques, a variable representing component wear is correlated with variables describing application severity, demonstrating that enhancing maintenance strategies based on data analysis is feasible. With the increased accuracy of component maintenance criteria, a 10% increase in availability is estimated.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-08-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141923680","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
In contrast to passenger cars, whose regulation allowed only a simple trailer combination, the autonomous technologies implementation of Electronic Stability Control (ESC) and Advanced Emergency Braking System (AEBS) for commercial vehicles demands more application and calibration efforts. At this case, the focus is on dynamic control of towing vehicles when applying the service brakes of trailer, in special when complex combination as bi-train and road-train, allowed in North and South America. However, the major risk is present occurrence when an ESC or AEBS equipped towing vehicles is connected to a double or triple trailer combination with a conventional braking system, it means: a system that is not equipped with Anti-lock Braking System (ABS). For instance, if during autonomous control, trailers wheels lock, a jackknifing phenomenon can easily occur. Therefore, in case longer and heavier vehicles (LHV) or megatrucks as called in Europe, the strategy for safety assistance systems application should consider trailer configuration maturity level of public reading fleet. In this context, the article aims to propose strategies of implementation and product development that can support the easiest introduction of road safety technologies based on autonomous braking products, in special when it is applied in markets where towed vehicles fleet are greater participation of vehicles equipped with conventional braking system, as occur in Brazil. In order to deliver this, a bibliographic research was carried out looking the available regulation and polities from markets where ESC and AEBS were already implemented, like EU and US. In addition, it was studied an Argentine government program that introduce at same time: road safety technologies, technological fleet renewal policies, periodic vehicle inspection, however offsetting the increased costs with logistical benefits for transport business.
{"title":"Analysis of road safety implementation strategies to support the easiest introduction of autonomous braking products for complex vehicle combinations","authors":"Vinícius Mendes Guarenghi, Rafael Fortuna Pizzi, Alessandro Depetris, Gustavo Laranjeira Nunes Pinto, Germano Collobialli","doi":"10.4271/2024-36-0319","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-36-0319","url":null,"abstract":"In contrast to passenger cars, whose regulation allowed only a simple trailer combination, the autonomous technologies implementation of Electronic Stability Control (ESC) and Advanced Emergency Braking System (AEBS) for commercial vehicles demands more application and calibration efforts. At this case, the focus is on dynamic control of towing vehicles when applying the service brakes of trailer, in special when complex combination as bi-train and road-train, allowed in North and South America. However, the major risk is present occurrence when an ESC or AEBS equipped towing vehicles is connected to a double or triple trailer combination with a conventional braking system, it means: a system that is not equipped with Anti-lock Braking System (ABS). For instance, if during autonomous control, trailers wheels lock, a jackknifing phenomenon can easily occur. Therefore, in case longer and heavier vehicles (LHV) or megatrucks as called in Europe, the strategy for safety assistance systems application should consider trailer configuration maturity level of public reading fleet. In this context, the article aims to propose strategies of implementation and product development that can support the easiest introduction of road safety technologies based on autonomous braking products, in special when it is applied in markets where towed vehicles fleet are greater participation of vehicles equipped with conventional braking system, as occur in Brazil. In order to deliver this, a bibliographic research was carried out looking the available regulation and polities from markets where ESC and AEBS were already implemented, like EU and US. In addition, it was studied an Argentine government program that introduce at same time: road safety technologies, technological fleet renewal policies, periodic vehicle inspection, however offsetting the increased costs with logistical benefits for transport business.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-08-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141925204","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Designing a brake disc is a very challenging job. Besides to being a key item in vehicle safety, we are referring to a product that goes through several manufacturing processes and during its application it is exposed to extreme conditions of mechanical stress, temperature and vibration. The raw material for a large portion of commercial brake discs is normally gray cast iron with the possibility of adding alloy elements. This material is characterized by having high resistance to wear due to friction and having practically zero plasticity. As it is a material without a plastic working regime, it is very important to properly size the product for use, once the material’s resistance limit is reached, a catastrophic failure in operation may be inevitable. Quality control systems in casting and machining have great importance in the development of the disc, but physical tests are always essential in this type of product. Dynamometer tests are great options for validating brake discs, due to their ability to simulate practically all the severe conditions to which they will be exposed in real application. However, it is possible to predict possible disc failures even before subjecting them to the dynamometer, using numerical analyzes through the finite element method, a methodology that ensures that we are more assertive in the project, reducing time and money spent. In view of this challenging scenario, this work presents the results of a thermal analysis (CFD) of a brake disc, coupled with a structural analysis (FEA), with the objective of predicting a possible failure in the product and finally correlating the numerical results data with data from physical tests obtained on a dynamometer. At the end of this work, it was possible to determine the thermal distribution of the disc at the thermocouple installation point with an accuracy of 95% and find tensile stresses in the order of the yield stress of the disc material, thus predicting a probable breakage.
{"title":"Thermal coupled structural analysis of a brake disc","authors":"Jardel Luis Deckmann, Vagner do Nascimento","doi":"10.4271/2024-36-0305","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-36-0305","url":null,"abstract":"Designing a brake disc is a very challenging job. Besides to being a key item in vehicle safety, we are referring to a product that goes through several manufacturing processes and during its application it is exposed to extreme conditions of mechanical stress, temperature and vibration. The raw material for a large portion of commercial brake discs is normally gray cast iron with the possibility of adding alloy elements. This material is characterized by having high resistance to wear due to friction and having practically zero plasticity. As it is a material without a plastic working regime, it is very important to properly size the product for use, once the material’s resistance limit is reached, a catastrophic failure in operation may be inevitable. Quality control systems in casting and machining have great importance in the development of the disc, but physical tests are always essential in this type of product. Dynamometer tests are great options for validating brake discs, due to their ability to simulate practically all the severe conditions to which they will be exposed in real application. However, it is possible to predict possible disc failures even before subjecting them to the dynamometer, using numerical analyzes through the finite element method, a methodology that ensures that we are more assertive in the project, reducing time and money spent. In view of this challenging scenario, this work presents the results of a thermal analysis (CFD) of a brake disc, coupled with a structural analysis (FEA), with the objective of predicting a possible failure in the product and finally correlating the numerical results data with data from physical tests obtained on a dynamometer. At the end of this work, it was possible to determine the thermal distribution of the disc at the thermocouple installation point with an accuracy of 95% and find tensile stresses in the order of the yield stress of the disc material, thus predicting a probable breakage.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-08-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141921238","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Diego Chavez Jara, Carlos Lorenzana, Edoardo Cotilli, Andrea Sliepcevich, Michael Conforti
This research explores the tribological characteristics of brake friction materials, focusing on synthetic iron-based sulfides with unique microstructures. Tribological testing, conducted per the SAE J2522 and SAE J2707 standards across diverse temperatures, reveals the superior performance of brake pads incorporating composite iron sulfide, especially at high temperatures. These pads exhibit stable friction levels and reduced wear compared to those utilizing pure iron sulfide, signifying a noteworthy advancement in overall tribological properties. A comprehensive cross-sectional analysis of friction materials using Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) reveals chemical alterations. Pure iron sulfide undergoes extensive oxidation compared to composite iron sulfide, which exhibits oxidation near the friction surface due to differences in the oxidation mechanism because of the differential microstructure. Furthermore, Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) techniques were employed to validate the observed differences. The research highlights the pivotal role of microstructure in influencing the kinetics of thermal oxidation. An alternative oxidation mechanism is postulated for composite iron sulfides, offering insights into disparities in oxidation processes compared to pure iron sulfides. A noteworthy aspect is the protective function of magnesium oxide in composite iron sulfide, acting as a shield against oxidation. These findings indicate significant performance enhancements for composite iron sulfide (FE50), particularly in high-temperature conditions, exhibiting consistent friction coefficients and reduced wear compared to pure iron sulfide (FE10).
这项研究探讨了制动摩擦材料的摩擦学特性，重点是具有独特微观结构的合成铁基硫化物。根据 SAE J2522 和 SAE J2707 标准在不同温度下进行的摩擦学测试表明，采用复合硫化铁的刹车片性能优越，尤其是在高温下。与使用纯硫化铁的制动片相比，这些制动片表现出稳定的摩擦水平和更低的磨损，标志着整体摩擦学性能的显著提高。利用扫描电子显微镜和能量色散 X 射线光谱法（SEM/EDS）对摩擦材料进行的横截面综合分析显示了化学变化。与复合硫化铁相比，纯硫化铁会发生大面积氧化，而复合硫化铁则会在摩擦表面附近发生氧化，这是因为微观结构不同导致氧化机制不同。此外，还采用了热重分析（TGA）和 X 射线衍射（XRD）技术来验证观察到的差异。研究强调了微观结构在影响热氧化动力学方面的关键作用。研究推测了复合硫化铁的另一种氧化机理，为了解氧化过程与纯硫化铁的差异提供了见解。值得注意的是，复合硫化铁中的氧化镁具有保护功能，可起到防止氧化的作用。这些研究结果表明，与纯硫化铁（FE10）相比，复合硫化铁（FE50）的性能明显提高，尤其是在高温条件下，摩擦系数一致，磨损减少。
{"title":"Microstructural Analysis and Tribological Performance of Composite Iron Sulfides in Automotive Brake Pads","authors":"Diego Chavez Jara, Carlos Lorenzana, Edoardo Cotilli, Andrea Sliepcevich, Michael Conforti","doi":"10.4271/2024-36-0322","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-36-0322","url":null,"abstract":"This research explores the tribological characteristics of brake friction materials, focusing on synthetic iron-based sulfides with unique microstructures. Tribological testing, conducted per the SAE J2522 and SAE J2707 standards across diverse temperatures, reveals the superior performance of brake pads incorporating composite iron sulfide, especially at high temperatures. These pads exhibit stable friction levels and reduced wear compared to those utilizing pure iron sulfide, signifying a noteworthy advancement in overall tribological properties. A comprehensive cross-sectional analysis of friction materials using Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) reveals chemical alterations. Pure iron sulfide undergoes extensive oxidation compared to composite iron sulfide, which exhibits oxidation near the friction surface due to differences in the oxidation mechanism because of the differential microstructure. Furthermore, Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) techniques were employed to validate the observed differences. The research highlights the pivotal role of microstructure in influencing the kinetics of thermal oxidation. An alternative oxidation mechanism is postulated for composite iron sulfides, offering insights into disparities in oxidation processes compared to pure iron sulfides. A noteworthy aspect is the protective function of magnesium oxide in composite iron sulfide, acting as a shield against oxidation. These findings indicate significant performance enhancements for composite iron sulfide (FE50), particularly in high-temperature conditions, exhibiting consistent friction coefficients and reduced wear compared to pure iron sulfide (FE10).","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-08-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141923948","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
R.B. Casagrande, A.R.A. De Souza, A.V. Finimundi, C.H.S Pereira, D. Masotti, R.J. Rombaldi, T. Gotardo
Considered one of the greenest forms of transport, the rail industry is at an exciting point pursuing several key initiatives to decarbonise its operations, assets, and supply chains. Therefore, having a brake shoe with a lower carbon footprint is essential for achieving the goals related to decarbonizing the operation, as it is a wear item. For this purpose, a carbon footprint measurement methodology was applied to the development of a friction material for railway brake shoes in order to reduce the carbon footprint generated in the production of the material, combining a sustainable material with greater durability in operation, thus reducing the total cost of ownership. In order to assess the advantages of the new product, a comparative analysis was carried out of the carbon footprint of the conventional shoe and the new railway shoe proposal, both used in the same application, considering the performance and environmental impact of each raw material and stage of the production process. This assessment was carried out by compiling and analyzing greenhouse gas emissions throughout the entire life cycle, from the extraction of raw materials, through all the links in its production chain to the gate, in accordance with ABNT ISO/TS 14067:2018. Performance was also assessed based on the AAR M-926 standard using a 1:1 scale inertial dynamometer capable of simulating the various operating conditions following the specifications of the Brazilian market. The comparative analysis showed that the new railway shoe is a more sustainable option, as it emits 43% less greenhouse gases than the conventional shoe (avoiding 4.7 kg of CO2e in the environment). The performance results also indicated a durability gain of 20% compared to conventional brake shoes.
{"title":"Development of Brake Shoe with Carbon Footprint Reduction","authors":"R.B. Casagrande, A.R.A. De Souza, A.V. Finimundi, C.H.S Pereira, D. Masotti, R.J. Rombaldi, T. Gotardo","doi":"10.4271/2024-36-0311","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-36-0311","url":null,"abstract":"Considered one of the greenest forms of transport, the rail industry is at an exciting point pursuing several key initiatives to decarbonise its operations, assets, and supply chains. Therefore, having a brake shoe with a lower carbon footprint is essential for achieving the goals related to decarbonizing the operation, as it is a wear item. For this purpose, a carbon footprint measurement methodology was applied to the development of a friction material for railway brake shoes in order to reduce the carbon footprint generated in the production of the material, combining a sustainable material with greater durability in operation, thus reducing the total cost of ownership. In order to assess the advantages of the new product, a comparative analysis was carried out of the carbon footprint of the conventional shoe and the new railway shoe proposal, both used in the same application, considering the performance and environmental impact of each raw material and stage of the production process. This assessment was carried out by compiling and analyzing greenhouse gas emissions throughout the entire life cycle, from the extraction of raw materials, through all the links in its production chain to the gate, in accordance with ABNT ISO/TS 14067:2018. Performance was also assessed based on the AAR M-926 standard using a 1:1 scale inertial dynamometer capable of simulating the various operating conditions following the specifications of the Brazilian market. The comparative analysis showed that the new railway shoe is a more sustainable option, as it emits 43% less greenhouse gases than the conventional shoe (avoiding 4.7 kg of CO2e in the environment). The performance results also indicated a durability gain of 20% compared to conventional brake shoes.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-08-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141921931","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
There have been numerous studies on stable platooning, but almost all of them have been on the longitudinal stability problem, wherein, without sufficient longitudinal stability, traffic congestion might occur more frequently than in traffic consisting of manually driven vehicles. Failure to solve this problem would reduce the value of autonomous driving. Recently, some researchers have begun to tackle the lateral stability problem, anticipating shortened intervehicle distances in the future. Here, the intervehicle distance in a platoon should be shortened to improve transportation efficiency. However, if an obstacle to be avoided exists, the following vehicles might have difficulty finding it quickly enough if the preceding vehicle occludes it from their sensors. Also, longer platoons improve transportation efficiency because the number of gaps between platoons is reduced. Hence, in this study, the lateral stability of platoons consisting of autonomous vehicles was analyzed for not only determining how to track the preceding vehicle when there are lateral movements but also suppressing unintentional lateral movement caused by disturbances affecting the vehicles in the platoon. The analytical results indicate that it is not realistic to expect that a single gain controller can both track the reference path to avoid an obstacle and suppress the lateral movement caused by a disturbance to long platoons of 10 vehicles or more. On the basis of these results, a new lateral control strategy was developed that has both good tracking performance for avoiding obstacles and a capability of suppressing harmful movements of vehicles following the one affected by the disturbance. This strategy works by varying the gain depending on the estimated disturbance. A simulation was conducted to examine its effect on platoons consisting of 10 vehicles.
{"title":"Lateral Platooning Control with Precise Path Tracking and Strong\u0000 Disturbance Suppression Performance","authors":"Masahiko Kurishige","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-5074","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-5074","url":null,"abstract":"There have been numerous studies on stable platooning, but almost all of them\u0000 have been on the longitudinal stability problem, wherein, without sufficient\u0000 longitudinal stability, traffic congestion might occur more frequently than in\u0000 traffic consisting of manually driven vehicles. Failure to solve this problem\u0000 would reduce the value of autonomous driving. Recently, some researchers have\u0000 begun to tackle the lateral stability problem, anticipating shortened\u0000 intervehicle distances in the future. Here, the intervehicle distance in a\u0000 platoon should be shortened to improve transportation efficiency. However, if an\u0000 obstacle to be avoided exists, the following vehicles might have difficulty\u0000 finding it quickly enough if the preceding vehicle occludes it from their\u0000 sensors. Also, longer platoons improve transportation efficiency because the\u0000 number of gaps between platoons is reduced. Hence, in this study, the lateral\u0000 stability of platoons consisting of autonomous vehicles was analyzed for not\u0000 only determining how to track the preceding vehicle when there are lateral\u0000 movements but also suppressing unintentional lateral movement caused by\u0000 disturbances affecting the vehicles in the platoon. The analytical results\u0000 indicate that it is not realistic to expect that a single gain controller can\u0000 both track the reference path to avoid an obstacle and suppress the lateral\u0000 movement caused by a disturbance to long platoons of 10 vehicles or more. On the\u0000 basis of these results, a new lateral control strategy was developed that has\u0000 both good tracking performance for avoiding obstacles and a capability of\u0000 suppressing harmful movements of vehicles following the one affected by the\u0000 disturbance. This strategy works by varying the gain depending on the estimated\u0000 disturbance. A simulation was conducted to examine its effect on platoons\u0000 consisting of 10 vehicles.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141809400","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
K. Vinoth Kumar, K. Karthick, M. Balasubramanian, R.S. Chidhamparam, S. Jones
Despite their many similarities, natural fibers have superior mechanical properties to synthetic fibers, including higher ultimate strength, greater elongation, resistance to ethering, biodegradability, lightweight, and fewer toxications. The mechanical characteristics of several matrices reinforced with synthetic and hemp fibers were examined in the current paper. We made the various hemp composites using vinyl ester, cellulose acetate (CA), treated CA, and GFRP (glass fiber-reinforced polymer) with CA. Composites were examined for mechanical characteristics such as tensile, flexural, impact, and hardness. Composites have a density of 1.19 g/cm3. Hemp with vinyl ester has higher tensile strength and flexural properties than other composites, but in impact, GFRP with CA has more impact strength of nearly 400 J/m, so for making eco-friendly biocomposite for lightweight structural applications.
尽管天然纤维与合成纤维有许多相似之处，但天然纤维的机械特性却优于合成纤维，包括更高的极限强度、更大的伸长率、抗醚化能力、生物降解性、轻质和较少的毒性。本文研究了几种用合成纤维和麻纤维增强的基材的机械特性。我们使用乙烯基酯、醋酸纤维素（CA）、处理过的 CA 和带有 CA 的 GFRP（玻璃纤维增强聚合物）制作了各种麻复合材料。对复合材料的拉伸、弯曲、冲击和硬度等机械特性进行了检测。复合材料的密度为 1.19 克/立方厘米。含乙烯基酯的大麻比其他复合材料具有更高的拉伸强度和弯曲性能，但在冲击方面，含 CA 的玻璃纤维增强聚合物具有更高的冲击强度，接近 400 J/m，因此可用于制造环保型生物复合材料，用于轻质结构应用。
{"title":"Investigation on Mechanical Properties of Hemp Fiber-Reinforced in\u0000 Cellulose Acetate Composite Compared with Other Fiber Composites","authors":"K. Vinoth Kumar, K. Karthick, M. Balasubramanian, R.S. Chidhamparam, S. Jones","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-5073","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-5073","url":null,"abstract":"Despite their many similarities, natural fibers have superior mechanical\u0000 properties to synthetic fibers, including higher ultimate strength, greater\u0000 elongation, resistance to ethering, biodegradability, lightweight, and fewer\u0000 toxications. The mechanical characteristics of several matrices reinforced with\u0000 synthetic and hemp fibers were examined in the current paper. We made the\u0000 various hemp composites using vinyl ester, cellulose acetate (CA), treated CA,\u0000 and GFRP (glass fiber-reinforced polymer) with CA. Composites were examined for\u0000 mechanical characteristics such as tensile, flexural, impact, and hardness.\u0000 Composites have a density of 1.19 g/cm3. Hemp with vinyl ester has\u0000 higher tensile strength and flexural properties than other composites, but in\u0000 impact, GFRP with CA has more impact strength of nearly 400 J/m, so for making\u0000 eco-friendly biocomposite for lightweight structural applications.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141823641","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Ji Woo Yoo, Ki-Sang Chae, JaeHyuk Choi, Myunggyu Kim, Seunghyeon Cho, Christophe Coster, Anneleen Van Gils
Many sources and paths cause interior cabin noise. Some noise from an electric vehicle is unique and different from a vehicle with an internal combustion engine. Especially, whine noise occurs due to the particular orders of the electromagnetic force of an electric motor and transmission gears, which is tonal and usually reaches high frequencies. This paper covers structure-borne (SB) and airborne (AB) aspects to estimate whine, and the difference between the two characteristics is distinguished. The focus lies mainly on the process of virtual vehicle development and application for performance improvement. First, to predict SB whine, an e-powertrain is modeled as a finite element model (FEM), and electromagnetic (EM) forces are calculated. A vehicle model is also modeled as an FEM, in which interior sound packages are carefully modeled as they play an important role in the medium-frequency region. The e-powertrain and vehicle models (being simulated separately) are combined to obtain cabin noise up to 1.5 kHz. Design studies show that the stiffness of mount insulators and the panel stiffness of the vehicle can be substantial design variables to reduce the SB whine. Second, the study highlights a simulation method to predict interior airborne whine up to 8 kHz by combining the FEMs of the e-powertrain and the vehicle’s exterior cavity with a statistical energy analysis (SEA) model of a vehicle. Path contribution can be identified by defining source strength and acoustic transfer function of airborne paths. Design modifications, including encapsulation of the e-powertrain, show this simulation process could be practically useful to reduce the airborne whine at high frequencies.
{"title":"Prediction and Improvement of Structure-Borne and Airborne Whines of\u0000 an Electric Vehicle for Virtual Development","authors":"Ji Woo Yoo, Ki-Sang Chae, JaeHyuk Choi, Myunggyu Kim, Seunghyeon Cho, Christophe Coster, Anneleen Van Gils","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-5072","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-5072","url":null,"abstract":"Many sources and paths cause interior cabin noise. Some noise from an electric\u0000 vehicle is unique and different from a vehicle with an internal combustion\u0000 engine. Especially, whine noise occurs due to the particular orders of the\u0000 electromagnetic force of an electric motor and transmission gears, which is\u0000 tonal and usually reaches high frequencies. This paper covers structure-borne\u0000 (SB) and airborne (AB) aspects to estimate whine, and the difference between the\u0000 two characteristics is distinguished. The focus lies mainly on the process of\u0000 virtual vehicle development and application for performance improvement. First,\u0000 to predict SB whine, an e-powertrain is modeled as a finite element model (FEM),\u0000 and electromagnetic (EM) forces are calculated. A vehicle model is also modeled\u0000 as an FEM, in which interior sound packages are carefully modeled as they play\u0000 an important role in the medium-frequency region. The e-powertrain and vehicle\u0000 models (being simulated separately) are combined to obtain cabin noise up to 1.5\u0000 kHz. Design studies show that the stiffness of mount insulators and the panel\u0000 stiffness of the vehicle can be substantial design variables to reduce the SB\u0000 whine. Second, the study highlights a simulation method to predict interior\u0000 airborne whine up to 8 kHz by combining the FEMs of the e-powertrain and the\u0000 vehicle’s exterior cavity with a statistical energy analysis (SEA) model of a\u0000 vehicle. Path contribution can be identified by defining source strength and\u0000 acoustic transfer function of airborne paths. Design modifications, including\u0000 encapsulation of the e-powertrain, show this simulation process could be\u0000 practically useful to reduce the airborne whine at high frequencies.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141827224","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
京公网安备 11010802042870号
京ICP备2023020795号-1
扫码关注我们
求助内容：
应助结果提醒方式：