Mona Hellstern, Stefan Langhanki, Florian Grün, Reiner Kriesten, Eric Sax
The UN R155 regulation is the first automotive cybersecurity regulation and has made security a mandatory approval criterion for new vehicle types. This establishes internationally harmonized security requirements for market approval, presenting a challenge for manufacturers and suppliers to demonstrate compliance throughout the product life cycle. An issued type approval is internationally recognized by the member states of the UN 1958 Agreement. International recognition implies that uniform assessment criteria are applied to demonstrate compliance and to decide whether security efforts are sufficient. Independent accredited assessors assess the security engineering results during type approval. Considering the risk-based approach of ISO/SAE 21434 to security engineering, assessing whether threats have been appropriately addressed is a challenge. While there are currently no uniform assessment criteria at product level, the question arises as to which development artifacts serve as indicators for determining the efficacy of mitigation strategies. In response to this challenge, the paper conducts an analysis of existing security concepts of the automotive security standard ISO/SAE 21434 and the Information Technology Security Evaluation Standard ISO 15408 (Common Criteria) and therefore provides an insight into the state-of-the-art of security evaluation methods. The overall objective is to derive applicable assessment criteria and recommendations for the UN R155 approval while taking into account relevant security properties that help to decide on the sufficiency of security measures. These recommendations aim to enhance the comprehensiveness of the security assessment associated with UN R155, fostering a more uniform approach to evaluating cybersecurity in the context of vehicle type approvals.
UN R155 法规是首个汽车网络安全法规，并将安全性作为新车型的强制性审批标准。这为市场审批确立了国际统一的安全要求，为制造商和供应商在整个产品生命周期内证明合规性提出了挑战。已签发的型式批准书在国际上得到联合国 1958 年协议成员国的承认。国际认可意味着要采用统一的评估标准来证明合规性，并决定安全措施是否充分。在型式批准过程中，独立的认证评估人员会对安全工程结果进行评估。考虑到 ISO/SAE 21434 对安全工程采用基于风险的方法，评估威胁是否已得到适当处理是一项挑战。虽然目前在产品层面没有统一的评估标准，但问题是哪些开发工件可作为确定缓解策略有效性的指标。为应对这一挑战，本文对汽车安全标准 ISO/SAE 21434 和信息技术安全评估标准 ISO 15408（通用标准）的现有安全概念进行了分析，从而深入了解了安全评估方法的最新进展。总体目标是为 UN R155 批准制定适用的评估标准和建议，同时考虑到有助于决定安全措施是否充分的相关安全属性。这些建议旨在提高与 UN R155 相关的安全评估的全面性，促进在车辆类型批准方面采用更加统一的网络安全评估方法。
{"title":"Cybersecurity Approval Criteria: Application of UN R155","authors":"Mona Hellstern, Stefan Langhanki, Florian Grün, Reiner Kriesten, Eric Sax","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2983","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2983","url":null,"abstract":"The UN R155 regulation is the first automotive cybersecurity regulation and has made security a mandatory approval criterion for new vehicle types. This establishes internationally harmonized security requirements for market approval, presenting a challenge for manufacturers and suppliers to demonstrate compliance throughout the product life cycle. An issued type approval is internationally recognized by the member states of the UN 1958 Agreement. International recognition implies that uniform assessment criteria are applied to demonstrate compliance and to decide whether security efforts are sufficient. Independent accredited assessors assess the security engineering results during type approval. Considering the risk-based approach of ISO/SAE 21434 to security engineering, assessing whether threats have been appropriately addressed is a challenge. While there are currently no uniform assessment criteria at product level, the question arises as to which development artifacts serve as indicators for determining the efficacy of mitigation strategies. In response to this challenge, the paper conducts an analysis of existing security concepts of the automotive security standard ISO/SAE 21434 and the Information Technology Security Evaluation Standard ISO 15408 (Common Criteria) and therefore provides an insight into the state-of-the-art of security evaluation methods. The overall objective is to derive applicable assessment criteria and recommendations for the UN R155 approval while taking into account relevant security properties that help to decide on the sufficiency of security measures. These recommendations aim to enhance the comprehensiveness of the security assessment associated with UN R155, fostering a more uniform approach to evaluating cybersecurity in the context of vehicle type approvals.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"22 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141685767","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Axel Sturm, Gerrit Brandes, Marcel Sander, Roman Henze, F. Küçükay
Electrified drives will change significantly in the wake of the further introduction of automated driving functions. Precise drive dimensioning, taking automated driving into account, opens up further potential in terms of drive operation and efficiency as well as optimal component design. Central element for unlocking the dimensioning potentials is the knowledge about the driving functions and their application. In this paper the implications of automated driving on the drive and component design are discussed. A process and a virtual toolchain for electric drive development from concept optimization to detailed dimensioning validation is presented. The process is subdivided into a concept optimization part for finding the optimal drive topology and layout and a detailed prototype environment, where more detailed component models can be assessed in customer operation to enable representative component dimensioning. Furthermore, the detailed simulation allows the drive investigation in representative customer operation as well as automated driving functions in terms of a software in the loop simulation. The process is used for the optimal dimensioning of a battery electric vehicle of the D-segment. The work focusses on a highway pilot function, developed at the Institute of Automotive Engineering of the Technische Universität Braunschweig. The optimal drive configuration can later be transferred to the prototype dimensioning. The simulation of automated driving function operation is based on a vehicle following scenario which employs statistical human behavior in the target vehicle and a sliding mode ACC in the ego vehicle. This methodology is particularly suitable for determining load spectra, which in turn can be used as test specifications for the strength simulation or endurance testing of the electric drive. Furthermore, simulation results can be used for the definition of representative cycles applicable for the concept optimization. The results of both processes will be compared and discussed in detail with an emphasis on efficiency, performance and load spectra.
随着自动驾驶功能的进一步引入，电气化驱动装置将发生重大变化。在考虑到自动驾驶功能的前提下进行精确的传动装置尺寸设计，可进一步提高传动装置的运行和效率，并优化部件设计。挖掘尺寸设计潜力的核心要素是对驾驶功能及其应用的了解。本文讨论了自动驾驶对驱动和部件设计的影响。本文介绍了从概念优化到详细尺寸验证的电力驱动开发流程和虚拟工具链。该流程被细分为概念优化部分和详细原型环境，前者用于寻找最佳驱动拓扑结构和布局，后者用于在客户操作中评估更详细的组件模型，以确定具有代表性的组件尺寸。此外，在详细模拟中，还可以对具有代表性的客户运行情况进行驱动研究，并通过环路模拟软件实现自动驱动功能。该过程用于优化 D 级电池电动汽车的尺寸。这项工作的重点是布伦瑞克工业大学汽车工程研究所开发的高速公路试验功能。最佳驱动配置随后可转移到原型车的尺寸设计中。自动驾驶功能的模拟操作基于车辆跟随场景，该场景采用了目标车辆中的人类行为统计和自我车辆中的滑动模式 ACC。这种方法尤其适用于确定负载频谱，而负载频谱又可用作电驱动强度模拟或耐久性测试的测试规格。此外，模拟结果还可用于定义适用于概念优化的代表性循环。我们将对两种方法的结果进行比较和详细讨论，重点是效率、性能和负载谱。
{"title":"Optimal and Prototype Dimensioning of Electrified Drives for Automated Driving","authors":"Axel Sturm, Gerrit Brandes, Marcel Sander, Roman Henze, F. Küçükay","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3021","url":null,"abstract":"Electrified drives will change significantly in the wake of the further introduction of automated driving functions. Precise drive dimensioning, taking automated driving into account, opens up further potential in terms of drive operation and efficiency as well as optimal component design. Central element for unlocking the dimensioning potentials is the knowledge about the driving functions and their application. In this paper the implications of automated driving on the drive and component design are discussed. A process and a virtual toolchain for electric drive development from concept optimization to detailed dimensioning validation is presented. The process is subdivided into a concept optimization part for finding the optimal drive topology and layout and a detailed prototype environment, where more detailed component models can be assessed in customer operation to enable representative component dimensioning. Furthermore, the detailed simulation allows the drive investigation in representative customer operation as well as automated driving functions in terms of a software in the loop simulation. The process is used for the optimal dimensioning of a battery electric vehicle of the D-segment. The work focusses on a highway pilot function, developed at the Institute of Automotive Engineering of the Technische Universität Braunschweig. The optimal drive configuration can later be transferred to the prototype dimensioning. The simulation of automated driving function operation is based on a vehicle following scenario which employs statistical human behavior in the target vehicle and a sliding mode ACC in the ego vehicle. This methodology is particularly suitable for determining load spectra, which in turn can be used as test specifications for the strength simulation or endurance testing of the electric drive. Furthermore, simulation results can be used for the definition of representative cycles applicable for the concept optimization. The results of both processes will be compared and discussed in detail with an emphasis on efficiency, performance and load spectra.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"2 12","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141684870","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
As part of the safety validation of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving (AD) functions, it is necessary to demonstrate that the frequency at which the system exhibits hazardous behavior (HB) in the field is below an acceptable threshold. This is typically tested by observation of the system behavior in a field operational test (FOT). For situations in which the system under test (SUT) actively intervenes in the dynamic driving behavior of the vehicle, it is assessed whether the SUT exhibits HB. Since the accepted threshold values are generally small, the amount of data required for this strategy is usually very large. This publication proposes an approach to reduce the amount of data required for the evaluation of emergency intervention systems with a state machine based intervention logic by including the time periods between intervention events in the validation process. For this purpose, a proximity measure that indicates how close the system is to an intervention at each point in time during the test drive is proposed. The application of this proximity measure and the definition of a corresponding threshold value makes it possible to expand the set of observable intervention events by events in which the system is close to an intervention. Thus, a subsequent assessment of these additional events regarding HB enables the data basis to be expanded to include events in which the system is close to exhibiting HB. This additional information is intended to be leveraged in the application of an extreme value estimator for deriving an estimate of the frequency at which the system is expected to exhibit HB on longer test distances. This publication focuses primarily on deriving and demonstrating the described proximity measure and provides an outlook on further steps required to validate the proposed approach.
{"title":"A Novel Approach for the Safety Validation of Emergency Intervention Functions Using Extreme Value Estimation","authors":"Malte Schrimpf, Daniel Betschinske, Steven Peters","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2993","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2993","url":null,"abstract":"As part of the safety validation of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving (AD) functions, it is necessary to demonstrate that the frequency at which the system exhibits hazardous behavior (HB) in the field is below an acceptable threshold. This is typically tested by observation of the system behavior in a field operational test (FOT). For situations in which the system under test (SUT) actively intervenes in the dynamic driving behavior of the vehicle, it is assessed whether the SUT exhibits HB. Since the accepted threshold values are generally small, the amount of data required for this strategy is usually very large. This publication proposes an approach to reduce the amount of data required for the evaluation of emergency intervention systems with a state machine based intervention logic by including the time periods between intervention events in the validation process. For this purpose, a proximity measure that indicates how close the system is to an intervention at each point in time during the test drive is proposed. The application of this proximity measure and the definition of a corresponding threshold value makes it possible to expand the set of observable intervention events by events in which the system is close to an intervention. Thus, a subsequent assessment of these additional events regarding HB enables the data basis to be expanded to include events in which the system is close to exhibiting HB. This additional information is intended to be leveraged in the application of an extreme value estimator for deriving an estimate of the frequency at which the system is expected to exhibit HB on longer test distances. This publication focuses primarily on deriving and demonstrating the described proximity measure and provides an outlook on further steps required to validate the proposed approach.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"346 9‐10","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141686881","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Daniel Betschinske, Malte Schrimpf, Moritz Lippert, Steven Peters
An essential component in the approval of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving systems (ADS) is the quantification of residual risk, which demonstrates that hazardous behavior (HB) occurs less frequently than specified by a corresponding acceptance criterion. In the case of HB with high potential impact severity, only very low accepted frequencies of occurrence are tolerated. To avoid uncertainties due to abstractions and simplifications in simulations, the proof of the residual risk in systems such as advanced emergency braking systems (AEBS) is often partially or entirely implemented as system level field test. However, the low rates and high confidence required, common for residual risk demonstrations, result in a significant disadvantage of these field tests: the long driving distance required. In this publication, the prediction divergence principle (PDP) is presented as an approach that has the potential to reduce the testing effort in the future, especially for systems based on the sense-plane-act structure. By continuously monitoring the prediction divergence, the approach provides essential information about the predictive performance of the system under test (SUT). In addition to the elaborated concept, this paper focuses on the mathematical decomposition of the HB into the false prediction (FPr) of the SUT and the probability that this FPr causes the HB. The approach is illustrated using the example of an AEBS. Furthermore, the prerequisites for applying the approach and the associated test reduction are derived using simplified models. Finally, the steps that must be investigated before the theoretical approach can be applied in practice are derived.
{"title":"Towards a New Approach for Reducing the Safety Validation Effort of Driving Functions Using Prediction Divergence Current Approach and Challenges","authors":"Daniel Betschinske, Malte Schrimpf, Moritz Lippert, Steven Peters","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3003","url":null,"abstract":"An essential component in the approval of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving systems (ADS) is the quantification of residual risk, which demonstrates that hazardous behavior (HB) occurs less frequently than specified by a corresponding acceptance criterion. In the case of HB with high potential impact severity, only very low accepted frequencies of occurrence are tolerated. To avoid uncertainties due to abstractions and simplifications in simulations, the proof of the residual risk in systems such as advanced emergency braking systems (AEBS) is often partially or entirely implemented as system level field test. However, the low rates and high confidence required, common for residual risk demonstrations, result in a significant disadvantage of these field tests: the long driving distance required. In this publication, the prediction divergence principle (PDP) is presented as an approach that has the potential to reduce the testing effort in the future, especially for systems based on the sense-plane-act structure. By continuously monitoring the prediction divergence, the approach provides essential information about the predictive performance of the system under test (SUT). In addition to the elaborated concept, this paper focuses on the mathematical decomposition of the HB into the false prediction (FPr) of the SUT and the probability that this FPr causes the HB. The approach is illustrated using the example of an AEBS. Furthermore, the prerequisites for applying the approach and the associated test reduction are derived using simplified models. Finally, the steps that must be investigated before the theoretical approach can be applied in practice are derived.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"2 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141686214","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Frank Allmendinger, Benedikt Martin, Marlen Schmidtmann
The study demonstrates the possibility and in particular the method to derive the efficiency of the entire fuel cell power system by measuring specific data of the recirculation path of the anode circuit of a fuel cell system. The results demonstrate the capabilities of the existing test rig and enable investigations on the suitability of auxiliary components. This study focuses on the hydrogen recirculation path equipped with multiple sensors and a needle valve to enable the required operating conditions of the fuel cell.Running a startup load profile without reaching the equilibrium state at all steps, the dynamic of the system and the requirements to the sensor parameters, such as sampling rate and precision, was seen. Additionally, it became obvious that the recirculation pump used is oversized, but a load point shift compensated this artifact. In detail, the stoichiometry and the efficiency of the entire system was evaluated. It was seen that the hydrogen concentration is approximately constant over the whole range of power of the fuel cell. Furthermore, all the results corresponded to the expectations so that it can be assumed that the test bench is working correctly. Further investigations will follow.
{"title":"Measurements in the Recirculation Path of a Fuel Cell System","authors":"Frank Allmendinger, Benedikt Martin, Marlen Schmidtmann","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3009","url":null,"abstract":"The study demonstrates the possibility and in particular the method to derive the efficiency of the entire fuel cell power system by measuring specific data of the recirculation path of the anode circuit of a fuel cell system. The results demonstrate the capabilities of the existing test rig and enable investigations on the suitability of auxiliary components. This study focuses on the hydrogen recirculation path equipped with multiple sensors and a needle valve to enable the required operating conditions of the fuel cell.Running a startup load profile without reaching the equilibrium state at all steps, the dynamic of the system and the requirements to the sensor parameters, such as sampling rate and precision, was seen. Additionally, it became obvious that the recirculation pump used is oversized, but a load point shift compensated this artifact. In detail, the stoichiometry and the efficiency of the entire system was evaluated. It was seen that the hydrogen concentration is approximately constant over the whole range of power of the fuel cell. Furthermore, all the results corresponded to the expectations so that it can be assumed that the test bench is working correctly. Further investigations will follow.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"26 15","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141684527","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The fast acceleration of GHG (CO2 in particular) emitted by human activities into the atmosphere is accelerating the average temperature increase of our globe causing heavy climate change. This phenomenon has triggered a strong pressure on GHG emission reduction in all the human activities including the transportation sector which contributes for the 29% to the total emissions in EU [1]. A mitigation to this tendency can come from synthetic fuels: when produced by using clean energy, they can be considered CO2 neutral. H2 is the building block of synthetic fuels and can be used in spark ignited engines where releases the energy accumulated during its production. This solution is particularly attractive for HD applications thanks to the high energy density. H2 can be burned in a quite wide range of λ, but staying on 2,2 the amount of engine out NOx will be low enough for the use on a 13L engine with a relatively simple aftertreatment system. This λ value is difficult to maintain in the full speed range for the turbocharger system as the exhaust gases energy may not be enough to spin compressor meeting the boost demand. This is particularly true at low speed and during acceleration. The Eaton Supercharger system driven by the engine crankshaft through a belt can compensate this gap and guarantee required λ also in critical conditions. The benefit of the additional boosting at full load is large enough for measuring in the mid/low speed range an increase in torque matching the Diesel values, and a 3% BTE rise. Going higher with the speed the Supercharger will not provide any more an advantage as turbocharger system is good enough for the λ 2,2. A clutch will disconnect the supercharger in that speed range and will prevent a drop in performance due to the power absorbed by the Supercharger itself. The use of Supercharger will also bring almost 30% improvement in transient response of the engine with no impact on air fuel ratio. With this strategy it is possible to convert a 13L Diesel engine for HD into an H2 maintaining same full load torque and power curves, while maximizing transient performance and efficiency.
{"title":"Benefits of Supercharger Boosting on H2 ICE for Heavy Duty Applications","authors":"Nicola Andrisani, Nilesh Bagal","doi":"10.62626/zz6h-ksdn","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.62626/zz6h-ksdn","url":null,"abstract":"The fast acceleration of GHG (CO2 in particular) emitted by human activities into the atmosphere is accelerating the average temperature increase of our globe causing heavy climate change. This phenomenon has triggered a strong pressure on GHG emission reduction in all the human activities including the transportation sector which contributes for the 29% to the total emissions in EU [1]. A mitigation to this tendency can come from synthetic fuels: when produced by using clean energy, they can be considered CO2 neutral. H2 is the building block of synthetic fuels and can be used in spark ignited engines where releases the energy accumulated during its production. This solution is particularly attractive for HD applications thanks to the high energy density. H2 can be burned in a quite wide range of λ, but staying on 2,2 the amount of engine out NOx will be low enough for the use on a 13L engine with a relatively simple aftertreatment system. This λ value is difficult to maintain in the full speed range for the turbocharger system as the exhaust gases energy may not be enough to spin compressor meeting the boost demand. This is particularly true at low speed and during acceleration. The Eaton Supercharger system driven by the engine crankshaft through a belt can compensate this gap and guarantee required λ also in critical conditions. The benefit of the additional boosting at full load is large enough for measuring in the mid/low speed range an increase in torque matching the Diesel values, and a 3% BTE rise. Going higher with the speed the Supercharger will not provide any more an advantage as turbocharger system is good enough for the λ 2,2. A clutch will disconnect the supercharger in that speed range and will prevent a drop in performance due to the power absorbed by the Supercharger itself. The use of Supercharger will also bring almost 30% improvement in transient response of the engine with no impact on air fuel ratio. With this strategy it is possible to convert a 13L Diesel engine for HD into an H2 maintaining same full load torque and power curves, while maximizing transient performance and efficiency.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"16 20","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141685912","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
When riding an e-bike, riders are faced with the question of whether there is enough energy left in the battery to reach the destination with the desired level of support. Therefore, e-bike riders have range anxiety. Specifically, this describes the fear that the battery charge will be exhausted before there is an opportunity to recharge it and that it will no longer be possible to use the electric support. However, e-bike riders have so far had to decide for themselves whether the available battery charge is sufficient for riding the planned route or whether the desired destination can be reached. In this context, the challenge is to decide how much electric propulsion support can be used so that an appropriate amount of effort can be achieved for the entire ride. In order to assist e-bike riders with this problem, the objective of this paper is to present an approach towards a system that provides rider-adaptive support over the entire ride of a defined route. This involves using the propulsion support in such a way that the rider requires an appropriate level of effort. The rider-adaptive support is to be implemented via an automatic mode of the e-bike propulsion system, which automatically sets the corresponding support intensity. The assistance system is designed to ensure that a planned destination can be reached using the rider-adaptive support. To achieve this, the use of the propulsion support is optimized and automatically adjusted according to the available energy and the route to be cycled. The implementation will be carried out as a predictive energy management system. This calculates an optimized support strategy based on an energy demand prediction for the route to be cycled and the available energy of the e-bike battery.
{"title":"Approach for an Assistance System for E-Bikes to Implement Rider-Adaptive Support","authors":"Yannick Rauch, Reiner Kriesten","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2979","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2979","url":null,"abstract":"When riding an e-bike, riders are faced with the question of whether there is enough energy left in the battery to reach the destination with the desired level of support. Therefore, e-bike riders have range anxiety. Specifically, this describes the fear that the battery charge will be exhausted before there is an opportunity to recharge it and that it will no longer be possible to use the electric support. However, e-bike riders have so far had to decide for themselves whether the available battery charge is sufficient for riding the planned route or whether the desired destination can be reached. In this context, the challenge is to decide how much electric propulsion support can be used so that an appropriate amount of effort can be achieved for the entire ride. In order to assist e-bike riders with this problem, the objective of this paper is to present an approach towards a system that provides rider-adaptive support over the entire ride of a defined route. This involves using the propulsion support in such a way that the rider requires an appropriate level of effort. The rider-adaptive support is to be implemented via an automatic mode of the e-bike propulsion system, which automatically sets the corresponding support intensity. The assistance system is designed to ensure that a planned destination can be reached using the rider-adaptive support. To achieve this, the use of the propulsion support is optimized and automatically adjusted according to the available energy and the route to be cycled. The implementation will be carried out as a predictive energy management system. This calculates an optimized support strategy based on an energy demand prediction for the route to be cycled and the available energy of the e-bike battery.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"353 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141686487","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
M. Mehrgou, Inigo Garcia de Madinabeitia, Mohamed Essam Ahmed
In recent years, the automotive industry has dedicated significant attention to the evolution of electric vehicles (EVs). The Electric-machine (as motor and generator, here and onward called E-machine as more general term) as the heart of the EDU (Electric Drive Unit) is very important component of powertrain and is the one of the main focuses of development. Traditionally, E-machine design has primarily focused on factors like efficiency, packaging, and cost, often neglecting the critical aspects of Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) specially at the early decision-making stages. This disconnect between E-machine design teams and NVH teams has consistently posed a challenge, which is the experience seen in many OEMs. This paper introduces an innovative workflow that unifies these previously separate domains, facilitating comprehensive optimization by integrating NVH considerations with other E-machine objectives, efficiency, weight, packaging and cost. This paper highlights AVL's approach in achieving this transformation and demonstrates how this integrated approach sets a new standard for E-machine design.The presented novel approach, which is also patented, relies on AI-driven algorithms and computational tools. The important aspect of this methodology is that from the first step of E-machine design, NVH is included. This advanced methodology makes sure that with predictive modeling and advanced optimization, an optimal electric machine is developed for NVH without compromising on efficiency or costs.
{"title":"Synergizing Efficiency and Silence: A Novel Approach to E-Machine Development","authors":"M. Mehrgou, Inigo Garcia de Madinabeitia, Mohamed Essam Ahmed","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2914","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2914","url":null,"abstract":"In recent years, the automotive industry has dedicated significant attention to the evolution of electric vehicles (EVs). The Electric-machine (as motor and generator, here and onward called E-machine as more general term) as the heart of the EDU (Electric Drive Unit) is very important component of powertrain and is the one of the main focuses of development. Traditionally, E-machine design has primarily focused on factors like efficiency, packaging, and cost, often neglecting the critical aspects of Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) specially at the early decision-making stages. This disconnect between E-machine design teams and NVH teams has consistently posed a challenge, which is the experience seen in many OEMs. This paper introduces an innovative workflow that unifies these previously separate domains, facilitating comprehensive optimization by integrating NVH considerations with other E-machine objectives, efficiency, weight, packaging and cost. This paper highlights AVL's approach in achieving this transformation and demonstrates how this integrated approach sets a new standard for E-machine design.The presented novel approach, which is also patented, relies on AI-driven algorithms and computational tools. The important aspect of this methodology is that from the first step of E-machine design, NVH is included. This advanced methodology makes sure that with predictive modeling and advanced optimization, an optimal electric machine is developed for NVH without compromising on efficiency or costs.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"126 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141351674","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Andreas Rauter, L. Utzig, K. Weisheit, Steffen Marburg
Squeak and rattle (SAR) noise audible inside a passenger car causes the product quality perceived by the customer to deteriorate. The consequences are high warranty costs and a loss in brand reputation for the vehicle manufacturer in the long run. Therefore, SAR noise must be prevented. This research shows the application and experimental validation of a novel method to predict SAR noise on an actual vehicle interior component. The method is based on non-linear theories in the frequency domain. It uses the Harmonic Balance Method (HBM) in combination with the Alternating Frequency/Time Domain Method (AFT) to solve the governing dynamic equations. The simulation approach is part of a process for SAR noise prediction in vehicle interior development presented herein. In the first step, a state-of-the-art linear frequency-domain simulation estimates an empirical risk index for SAR noise emission. Critical spots prone to SAR noise generation are located and ranked. In the second step, the non-linear simulation approach calculates a quantitative measure for the SAR noise generated at these critical spots. This computation considers the root cause for SAR noise, the non-linear forces emerging from critical contact interaction, i.e. stick-slip for squeak and repeated impact for rattle noise. In the third step, a shaker test validates the numerical results. Therefore, a full-scale test rig is built comprising an equipped vehicle interior assembly mounted on a frame. Thereby, the presented SAR noise prediction process featuring the novel non-linear frequency domain simulation approach is validated and applied to developing a complex vehicle interior assembly.
乘用车内的尖叫和异响（SAR）噪音会导致客户认为产品质量下降。从长远来看，其后果是高昂的保修费用和汽车制造商的品牌声誉损失。因此，必须防止 SAR 噪音。本研究展示了一种预测实际汽车内饰件 SAR 噪音的新方法的应用和实验验证。该方法基于频域非线性理论。它使用谐波平衡法（HBM）结合频率/时域交替法（AFT）来求解支配动态方程。该模拟方法是本文介绍的汽车内饰开发中 SAR 噪声预测流程的一部分。第一步，采用最先进的线性频域模拟估算出 SAR 噪声发射的经验风险指数。对容易产生 SAR 噪音的关键点进行定位和排序。第二步，非线性模拟方法计算出这些关键点产生的合成孔径雷达噪声的量化指标。这种计算方法考虑了 SAR 噪声的根本原因，即临界接触相互作用产生的非线性力，即产生尖叫声的粘滑力和产生异响噪声的反复撞击力。第三步，振动台试验验证数值结果。因此，我们建立了一个全尺寸测试平台，包括一个安装在框架上的汽车内饰总成。因此，采用新颖的非线性频域模拟方法的 SAR 噪声预测过程得到了验证，并被应用于开发复杂的汽车内饰总成。
{"title":"Advanced Squeak and Rattle Noise Prediction for Vehicle Interior Development - Numerical Simulation and Experimental Validation","authors":"Andreas Rauter, L. Utzig, K. Weisheit, Steffen Marburg","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2925","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2925","url":null,"abstract":"Squeak and rattle (SAR) noise audible inside a passenger car causes the product quality perceived by the customer to deteriorate. The consequences are high warranty costs and a loss in brand reputation for the vehicle manufacturer in the long run. Therefore, SAR noise must be prevented. This research shows the application and experimental validation of a novel method to predict SAR noise on an actual vehicle interior component. The method is based on non-linear theories in the frequency domain. It uses the Harmonic Balance Method (HBM) in combination with the Alternating Frequency/Time Domain Method (AFT) to solve the governing dynamic equations. The simulation approach is part of a process for SAR noise prediction in vehicle interior development presented herein. In the first step, a state-of-the-art linear frequency-domain simulation estimates an empirical risk index for SAR noise emission. Critical spots prone to SAR noise generation are located and ranked. In the second step, the non-linear simulation approach calculates a quantitative measure for the SAR noise generated at these critical spots. This computation considers the root cause for SAR noise, the non-linear forces emerging from critical contact interaction, i.e. stick-slip for squeak and repeated impact for rattle noise. In the third step, a shaker test validates the numerical results. Therefore, a full-scale test rig is built comprising an equipped vehicle interior assembly mounted on a frame. Thereby, the presented SAR noise prediction process featuring the novel non-linear frequency domain simulation approach is validated and applied to developing a complex vehicle interior assembly.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"103 23","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141352321","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
While conventional methods like classical Transfer Path Analysis (TPA), Multiple Coherence Analysis (MCA), Operational Deflection Shape (ODS), and Modal Analysis have been widely used for road noise reduction, component-TPA from Model Based System Engineering (MBSE) is gaining attention for its ability to efficiently develop complex mobility systems.In this research, we propose a method to achieve road noise targets in the early stage of vehicle development using component-level TPA based on the blocked force method. An important point is to ensure convergence of measured test results (e.g. sound pressure at driver ear) and simulation results from component TPA.To conduct component-TPA, it is essential to have an independent tire model consisting of wheel-tire blocked force and tire Frequency Response Function (FRF), as well as full vehicle FRF and vehicle hub FRF. In this study, the FRF of the full vehicle and wheel-tire blocked force are obtained using an in-situ method with a precedent vehicle. The tire FRF is then obtained using the FBS (Frequency Based Substructuring) decomposition method after measuring the vehicle’s hub FRF. The consistency of the measured interior noise with the interior noise calculated through the component-level TPA is verified.Furthermore, in virtual development for future vehicle models, the interior noise of the virtual vehicle can be predicted by converging the early-stage vehicle CAE model, such as the architecture or Preliminary Design Stage, with the independent tire model from internal database or provided by tire suppliers. The spindle load (wheel input load) of the vehicle, that is calculated using the equation derived from the component-level TPA, is used as excitation. Based on this interior noise prediction, technical measures to reduce the interior noise and vibration level can be considered through alternative designs that reduce the wheel input load, the sound transmission or avoid the sensitive frequency bands.
{"title":"Roadnoise Reduction through Component-TPA with Test and Simulation Convergence Using Blocked Force","authors":"Junmin Park, Sangyoung Park","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2952","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2952","url":null,"abstract":"While conventional methods like classical Transfer Path Analysis (TPA), Multiple Coherence Analysis (MCA), Operational Deflection Shape (ODS), and Modal Analysis have been widely used for road noise reduction, component-TPA from Model Based System Engineering (MBSE) is gaining attention for its ability to efficiently develop complex mobility systems.In this research, we propose a method to achieve road noise targets in the early stage of vehicle development using component-level TPA based on the blocked force method. An important point is to ensure convergence of measured test results (e.g. sound pressure at driver ear) and simulation results from component TPA.To conduct component-TPA, it is essential to have an independent tire model consisting of wheel-tire blocked force and tire Frequency Response Function (FRF), as well as full vehicle FRF and vehicle hub FRF. In this study, the FRF of the full vehicle and wheel-tire blocked force are obtained using an in-situ method with a precedent vehicle. The tire FRF is then obtained using the FBS (Frequency Based Substructuring) decomposition method after measuring the vehicle’s hub FRF. The consistency of the measured interior noise with the interior noise calculated through the component-level TPA is verified.Furthermore, in virtual development for future vehicle models, the interior noise of the virtual vehicle can be predicted by converging the early-stage vehicle CAE model, such as the architecture or Preliminary Design Stage, with the independent tire model from internal database or provided by tire suppliers. The spindle load (wheel input load) of the vehicle, that is calculated using the equation derived from the component-level TPA, is used as excitation. Based on this interior noise prediction, technical measures to reduce the interior noise and vibration level can be considered through alternative designs that reduce the wheel input load, the sound transmission or avoid the sensitive frequency bands.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"34 34","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141354270","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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