The mobility industry with its entire ecosystem is currently striving towards sustainable solutions, which leads to a continuous production ramp-up of electrified vehicles. The parallel extension of the charging infrastructure is needed but faced with various challenges like high investments and power limitations of local electrical grid connection. To fulfill the user requirements of electrified vehicle owners, large-scaled but cost-efficient charging systems for different parking scenarios in residential buildings, at work or at the destination are essential. MAHLE chargeBIG offers large-scaled and centralized charging infrastructure with more than 2,000 already installed charging points since 2019. This paper is a first scientific publication with an in-dept evaluation of the large-scaled charging infrastructure usage. Based on backend data of multiple MAHLE chargeBIG charging infrastructure installations with more than 600 charging points, more than 70,000 recorded charging events are analyzed. It proves that a single-phase charging concept offers sufficient charging power and is able to master multiple charging events by fulfilling customer requirements despite an unexpanded electrical grid infrastructure. As simulated in already published studies [1,2], 3-5 kW per vehicle are a sufficient charging power to recharge the daily electricity demand in employer parking areas with less than 15 kWh in average. In combination with smart charging algorithms, the system can avoid charging power limitations caused by the grid connection and allows the integration in smart grid company environments.
{"title":"Charging Infrastructure for Employer Parking – Real Data Analysis and Charging Algorithms for Future Customer Demands","authors":"Dennis Mehlig, Matthias Krumbholz, Max Gerstadt","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2980","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2980","url":null,"abstract":"The mobility industry with its entire ecosystem is currently striving towards sustainable solutions, which leads to a continuous production ramp-up of electrified vehicles. The parallel extension of the charging infrastructure is needed but faced with various challenges like high investments and power limitations of local electrical grid connection. To fulfill the user requirements of electrified vehicle owners, large-scaled but cost-efficient charging systems for different parking scenarios in residential buildings, at work or at the destination are essential. MAHLE chargeBIG offers large-scaled and centralized charging infrastructure with more than 2,000 already installed charging points since 2019. This paper is a first scientific publication with an in-dept evaluation of the large-scaled charging infrastructure usage. Based on backend data of multiple MAHLE chargeBIG charging infrastructure installations with more than 600 charging points, more than 70,000 recorded charging events are analyzed. It proves that a single-phase charging concept offers sufficient charging power and is able to master multiple charging events by fulfilling customer requirements despite an unexpanded electrical grid infrastructure. As simulated in already published studies [1,2], 3-5 kW per vehicle are a sufficient charging power to recharge the daily electricity demand in employer parking areas with less than 15 kWh in average. In combination with smart charging algorithms, the system can avoid charging power limitations caused by the grid connection and allows the integration in smart grid company environments.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"46 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141687403","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Magda Elvira Cassone Potenza, Maria Rosaria Gaballo, Jan N. Geiler, Marino Iacobazzi, Giovanni Cornetti, A. Kulzer
The hydrogen engine is one of the promising technologies that enables carbon-neutral mobility, especially in heavy-duty on- or off-road applications. In this paper, a methodological procedure for the design of the combustion system of a hydrogen-fueled, direct injection spark ignited commercial vehicle engine is described.In a preliminary step, the ability of the commercial 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code AVL FIRE Classic to reproduce the characteristics of the gas jet, introduced into a quiescent environment by a dedicated H2 injector, is established. This is based on two parts: Temporal and numerical discretization sensitivity analyses ensure that the spatial and temporal resolution of the simulations is adequate, and comparisons to a comprehensive set of experiments demonstrate the accuracy of the simulations. The measurements used for this purpose rely on the well-known Schlieren technique and use helium as a safe substitute for H2. They reveal how the jet properties depend on the ratio between injection and ambient pressure and how the jet can attach to the chamber roof or be focused depending on the exact position of the injector within its bore.The numerical recipe validated using the Schlieren measurements is then adapted for the calculation of the mixture formation in the engine combustion chamber. The investigations encompass variations of the degree of recess within the injector bore, starting with the default flush-mounted configuration, and different piston design concepts. Key performance indicators of the simulations are the interaction between injection and engine charge motion and the development of the mixture homogeneity. Test bench results such as exhaust emissions are correlated to the numerical output provided by the simulations.
氢气发动机是实现碳中和移动性的有前途的技术之一，特别是在重型公路或非公路应用中。本文介绍了氢燃料直喷式火花点火商用车发动机燃烧系统的设计方法。第一步，确定了商用三维计算流体动力学（CFD）代码 AVL FIRE Classic 重现气体射流特性的能力，气体射流由专用氢气喷射器引入静态环境。这基于两个部分：时间和数值离散敏感性分析确保模拟的空间和时间分辨率足够高，而与综合实验的比较则证明了模拟的准确性。为此目的而进行的测量依赖于著名的 Schlieren 技术，并使用氦气作为 H2 的安全替代品。这些测量结果揭示了喷射特性如何取决于喷射压力和环境压力之间的比率，以及喷射如何附着在燃烧室顶上或根据喷射器在其孔内的确切位置而聚焦。研究包括喷油器孔内凹陷程度的变化（从默认的齐平安装配置开始）以及不同的活塞设计概念。模拟的关键性能指标是喷射和发动机装料运动之间的相互作用以及混合气均匀性的发展。废气排放等试验台结果与模拟提供的数值输出相关联。
{"title":"The 3D-CFD Contribution to H\u00002\u0000 Engine Development for CV and Off-Road Application","authors":"Magda Elvira Cassone Potenza, Maria Rosaria Gaballo, Jan N. Geiler, Marino Iacobazzi, Giovanni Cornetti, A. Kulzer","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3017","url":null,"abstract":"The hydrogen engine is one of the promising technologies that enables carbon-neutral mobility, especially in heavy-duty on- or off-road applications. In this paper, a methodological procedure for the design of the combustion system of a hydrogen-fueled, direct injection spark ignited commercial vehicle engine is described.In a preliminary step, the ability of the commercial 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code AVL FIRE Classic to reproduce the characteristics of the gas jet, introduced into a quiescent environment by a dedicated H2 injector, is established. This is based on two parts: Temporal and numerical discretization sensitivity analyses ensure that the spatial and temporal resolution of the simulations is adequate, and comparisons to a comprehensive set of experiments demonstrate the accuracy of the simulations. The measurements used for this purpose rely on the well-known Schlieren technique and use helium as a safe substitute for H2. They reveal how the jet properties depend on the ratio between injection and ambient pressure and how the jet can attach to the chamber roof or be focused depending on the exact position of the injector within its bore.The numerical recipe validated using the Schlieren measurements is then adapted for the calculation of the mixture formation in the engine combustion chamber. The investigations encompass variations of the degree of recess within the injector bore, starting with the default flush-mounted configuration, and different piston design concepts. Key performance indicators of the simulations are the interaction between injection and engine charge motion and the development of the mixture homogeneity. Test bench results such as exhaust emissions are correlated to the numerical output provided by the simulations.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"23 37","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141684753","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
As part of the safety validation of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving (AD) functions, it is necessary to demonstrate that the frequency at which the system exhibits hazardous behavior (HB) in the field is below an acceptable threshold. This is typically tested by observation of the system behavior in a field operational test (FOT). For situations in which the system under test (SUT) actively intervenes in the dynamic driving behavior of the vehicle, it is assessed whether the SUT exhibits HB. Since the accepted threshold values are generally small, the amount of data required for this strategy is usually very large. This publication proposes an approach to reduce the amount of data required for the evaluation of emergency intervention systems with a state machine based intervention logic by including the time periods between intervention events in the validation process. For this purpose, a proximity measure that indicates how close the system is to an intervention at each point in time during the test drive is proposed. The application of this proximity measure and the definition of a corresponding threshold value makes it possible to expand the set of observable intervention events by events in which the system is close to an intervention. Thus, a subsequent assessment of these additional events regarding HB enables the data basis to be expanded to include events in which the system is close to exhibiting HB. This additional information is intended to be leveraged in the application of an extreme value estimator for deriving an estimate of the frequency at which the system is expected to exhibit HB on longer test distances. This publication focuses primarily on deriving and demonstrating the described proximity measure and provides an outlook on further steps required to validate the proposed approach.
{"title":"A Novel Approach for the Safety Validation of Emergency Intervention Functions Using Extreme Value Estimation","authors":"Malte Schrimpf, Daniel Betschinske, Steven Peters","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2993","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2993","url":null,"abstract":"As part of the safety validation of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving (AD) functions, it is necessary to demonstrate that the frequency at which the system exhibits hazardous behavior (HB) in the field is below an acceptable threshold. This is typically tested by observation of the system behavior in a field operational test (FOT). For situations in which the system under test (SUT) actively intervenes in the dynamic driving behavior of the vehicle, it is assessed whether the SUT exhibits HB. Since the accepted threshold values are generally small, the amount of data required for this strategy is usually very large. This publication proposes an approach to reduce the amount of data required for the evaluation of emergency intervention systems with a state machine based intervention logic by including the time periods between intervention events in the validation process. For this purpose, a proximity measure that indicates how close the system is to an intervention at each point in time during the test drive is proposed. The application of this proximity measure and the definition of a corresponding threshold value makes it possible to expand the set of observable intervention events by events in which the system is close to an intervention. Thus, a subsequent assessment of these additional events regarding HB enables the data basis to be expanded to include events in which the system is close to exhibiting HB. This additional information is intended to be leveraged in the application of an extreme value estimator for deriving an estimate of the frequency at which the system is expected to exhibit HB on longer test distances. This publication focuses primarily on deriving and demonstrating the described proximity measure and provides an outlook on further steps required to validate the proposed approach.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"346 9‐10","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141686881","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Daniel Betschinske, Malte Schrimpf, Moritz Lippert, Steven Peters
An essential component in the approval of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving systems (ADS) is the quantification of residual risk, which demonstrates that hazardous behavior (HB) occurs less frequently than specified by a corresponding acceptance criterion. In the case of HB with high potential impact severity, only very low accepted frequencies of occurrence are tolerated. To avoid uncertainties due to abstractions and simplifications in simulations, the proof of the residual risk in systems such as advanced emergency braking systems (AEBS) is often partially or entirely implemented as system level field test. However, the low rates and high confidence required, common for residual risk demonstrations, result in a significant disadvantage of these field tests: the long driving distance required. In this publication, the prediction divergence principle (PDP) is presented as an approach that has the potential to reduce the testing effort in the future, especially for systems based on the sense-plane-act structure. By continuously monitoring the prediction divergence, the approach provides essential information about the predictive performance of the system under test (SUT). In addition to the elaborated concept, this paper focuses on the mathematical decomposition of the HB into the false prediction (FPr) of the SUT and the probability that this FPr causes the HB. The approach is illustrated using the example of an AEBS. Furthermore, the prerequisites for applying the approach and the associated test reduction are derived using simplified models. Finally, the steps that must be investigated before the theoretical approach can be applied in practice are derived.
{"title":"Towards a New Approach for Reducing the Safety Validation Effort of Driving Functions Using Prediction Divergence Current Approach and Challenges","authors":"Daniel Betschinske, Malte Schrimpf, Moritz Lippert, Steven Peters","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3003","url":null,"abstract":"An essential component in the approval of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving systems (ADS) is the quantification of residual risk, which demonstrates that hazardous behavior (HB) occurs less frequently than specified by a corresponding acceptance criterion. In the case of HB with high potential impact severity, only very low accepted frequencies of occurrence are tolerated. To avoid uncertainties due to abstractions and simplifications in simulations, the proof of the residual risk in systems such as advanced emergency braking systems (AEBS) is often partially or entirely implemented as system level field test. However, the low rates and high confidence required, common for residual risk demonstrations, result in a significant disadvantage of these field tests: the long driving distance required. In this publication, the prediction divergence principle (PDP) is presented as an approach that has the potential to reduce the testing effort in the future, especially for systems based on the sense-plane-act structure. By continuously monitoring the prediction divergence, the approach provides essential information about the predictive performance of the system under test (SUT). In addition to the elaborated concept, this paper focuses on the mathematical decomposition of the HB into the false prediction (FPr) of the SUT and the probability that this FPr causes the HB. The approach is illustrated using the example of an AEBS. Furthermore, the prerequisites for applying the approach and the associated test reduction are derived using simplified models. Finally, the steps that must be investigated before the theoretical approach can be applied in practice are derived.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"2 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141686214","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Frank Allmendinger, Benedikt Martin, Marlen Schmidtmann
The study demonstrates the possibility and in particular the method to derive the efficiency of the entire fuel cell power system by measuring specific data of the recirculation path of the anode circuit of a fuel cell system. The results demonstrate the capabilities of the existing test rig and enable investigations on the suitability of auxiliary components. This study focuses on the hydrogen recirculation path equipped with multiple sensors and a needle valve to enable the required operating conditions of the fuel cell.Running a startup load profile without reaching the equilibrium state at all steps, the dynamic of the system and the requirements to the sensor parameters, such as sampling rate and precision, was seen. Additionally, it became obvious that the recirculation pump used is oversized, but a load point shift compensated this artifact. In detail, the stoichiometry and the efficiency of the entire system was evaluated. It was seen that the hydrogen concentration is approximately constant over the whole range of power of the fuel cell. Furthermore, all the results corresponded to the expectations so that it can be assumed that the test bench is working correctly. Further investigations will follow.
{"title":"Measurements in the Recirculation Path of a Fuel Cell System","authors":"Frank Allmendinger, Benedikt Martin, Marlen Schmidtmann","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3009","url":null,"abstract":"The study demonstrates the possibility and in particular the method to derive the efficiency of the entire fuel cell power system by measuring specific data of the recirculation path of the anode circuit of a fuel cell system. The results demonstrate the capabilities of the existing test rig and enable investigations on the suitability of auxiliary components. This study focuses on the hydrogen recirculation path equipped with multiple sensors and a needle valve to enable the required operating conditions of the fuel cell.Running a startup load profile without reaching the equilibrium state at all steps, the dynamic of the system and the requirements to the sensor parameters, such as sampling rate and precision, was seen. Additionally, it became obvious that the recirculation pump used is oversized, but a load point shift compensated this artifact. In detail, the stoichiometry and the efficiency of the entire system was evaluated. It was seen that the hydrogen concentration is approximately constant over the whole range of power of the fuel cell. Furthermore, all the results corresponded to the expectations so that it can be assumed that the test bench is working correctly. Further investigations will follow.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"26 15","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141684527","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The fast acceleration of GHG (CO2 in particular) emitted by human activities into the atmosphere is accelerating the average temperature increase of our globe causing heavy climate change. This phenomenon has triggered a strong pressure on GHG emission reduction in all the human activities including the transportation sector which contributes for the 29% to the total emissions in EU [1]. A mitigation to this tendency can come from synthetic fuels: when produced by using clean energy, they can be considered CO2 neutral. H2 is the building block of synthetic fuels and can be used in spark ignited engines where releases the energy accumulated during its production. This solution is particularly attractive for HD applications thanks to the high energy density. H2 can be burned in a quite wide range of λ, but staying on 2,2 the amount of engine out NOx will be low enough for the use on a 13L engine with a relatively simple aftertreatment system. This λ value is difficult to maintain in the full speed range for the turbocharger system as the exhaust gases energy may not be enough to spin compressor meeting the boost demand. This is particularly true at low speed and during acceleration. The Eaton Supercharger system driven by the engine crankshaft through a belt can compensate this gap and guarantee required λ also in critical conditions. The benefit of the additional boosting at full load is large enough for measuring in the mid/low speed range an increase in torque matching the Diesel values, and a 3% BTE rise. Going higher with the speed the Supercharger will not provide any more an advantage as turbocharger system is good enough for the λ 2,2. A clutch will disconnect the supercharger in that speed range and will prevent a drop in performance due to the power absorbed by the Supercharger itself. The use of Supercharger will also bring almost 30% improvement in transient response of the engine with no impact on air fuel ratio. With this strategy it is possible to convert a 13L Diesel engine for HD into an H2 maintaining same full load torque and power curves, while maximizing transient performance and efficiency.
{"title":"Benefits of Supercharger Boosting on H2 ICE for Heavy Duty Applications","authors":"Nicola Andrisani, Nilesh Bagal","doi":"10.62626/zz6h-ksdn","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.62626/zz6h-ksdn","url":null,"abstract":"The fast acceleration of GHG (CO2 in particular) emitted by human activities into the atmosphere is accelerating the average temperature increase of our globe causing heavy climate change. This phenomenon has triggered a strong pressure on GHG emission reduction in all the human activities including the transportation sector which contributes for the 29% to the total emissions in EU [1]. A mitigation to this tendency can come from synthetic fuels: when produced by using clean energy, they can be considered CO2 neutral. H2 is the building block of synthetic fuels and can be used in spark ignited engines where releases the energy accumulated during its production. This solution is particularly attractive for HD applications thanks to the high energy density. H2 can be burned in a quite wide range of λ, but staying on 2,2 the amount of engine out NOx will be low enough for the use on a 13L engine with a relatively simple aftertreatment system. This λ value is difficult to maintain in the full speed range for the turbocharger system as the exhaust gases energy may not be enough to spin compressor meeting the boost demand. This is particularly true at low speed and during acceleration. The Eaton Supercharger system driven by the engine crankshaft through a belt can compensate this gap and guarantee required λ also in critical conditions. The benefit of the additional boosting at full load is large enough for measuring in the mid/low speed range an increase in torque matching the Diesel values, and a 3% BTE rise. Going higher with the speed the Supercharger will not provide any more an advantage as turbocharger system is good enough for the λ 2,2. A clutch will disconnect the supercharger in that speed range and will prevent a drop in performance due to the power absorbed by the Supercharger itself. The use of Supercharger will also bring almost 30% improvement in transient response of the engine with no impact on air fuel ratio. With this strategy it is possible to convert a 13L Diesel engine for HD into an H2 maintaining same full load torque and power curves, while maximizing transient performance and efficiency.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"16 20","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141685912","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
When riding an e-bike, riders are faced with the question of whether there is enough energy left in the battery to reach the destination with the desired level of support. Therefore, e-bike riders have range anxiety. Specifically, this describes the fear that the battery charge will be exhausted before there is an opportunity to recharge it and that it will no longer be possible to use the electric support. However, e-bike riders have so far had to decide for themselves whether the available battery charge is sufficient for riding the planned route or whether the desired destination can be reached. In this context, the challenge is to decide how much electric propulsion support can be used so that an appropriate amount of effort can be achieved for the entire ride. In order to assist e-bike riders with this problem, the objective of this paper is to present an approach towards a system that provides rider-adaptive support over the entire ride of a defined route. This involves using the propulsion support in such a way that the rider requires an appropriate level of effort. The rider-adaptive support is to be implemented via an automatic mode of the e-bike propulsion system, which automatically sets the corresponding support intensity. The assistance system is designed to ensure that a planned destination can be reached using the rider-adaptive support. To achieve this, the use of the propulsion support is optimized and automatically adjusted according to the available energy and the route to be cycled. The implementation will be carried out as a predictive energy management system. This calculates an optimized support strategy based on an energy demand prediction for the route to be cycled and the available energy of the e-bike battery.
{"title":"Approach for an Assistance System for E-Bikes to Implement Rider-Adaptive Support","authors":"Yannick Rauch, Reiner Kriesten","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2979","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2979","url":null,"abstract":"When riding an e-bike, riders are faced with the question of whether there is enough energy left in the battery to reach the destination with the desired level of support. Therefore, e-bike riders have range anxiety. Specifically, this describes the fear that the battery charge will be exhausted before there is an opportunity to recharge it and that it will no longer be possible to use the electric support. However, e-bike riders have so far had to decide for themselves whether the available battery charge is sufficient for riding the planned route or whether the desired destination can be reached. In this context, the challenge is to decide how much electric propulsion support can be used so that an appropriate amount of effort can be achieved for the entire ride. In order to assist e-bike riders with this problem, the objective of this paper is to present an approach towards a system that provides rider-adaptive support over the entire ride of a defined route. This involves using the propulsion support in such a way that the rider requires an appropriate level of effort. The rider-adaptive support is to be implemented via an automatic mode of the e-bike propulsion system, which automatically sets the corresponding support intensity. The assistance system is designed to ensure that a planned destination can be reached using the rider-adaptive support. To achieve this, the use of the propulsion support is optimized and automatically adjusted according to the available energy and the route to be cycled. The implementation will be carried out as a predictive energy management system. This calculates an optimized support strategy based on an energy demand prediction for the route to be cycled and the available energy of the e-bike battery.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"353 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141686487","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
M. Mehrgou, Inigo Garcia de Madinabeitia, Mohamed Essam Ahmed
In recent years, the automotive industry has dedicated significant attention to the evolution of electric vehicles (EVs). The Electric-machine (as motor and generator, here and onward called E-machine as more general term) as the heart of the EDU (Electric Drive Unit) is very important component of powertrain and is the one of the main focuses of development. Traditionally, E-machine design has primarily focused on factors like efficiency, packaging, and cost, often neglecting the critical aspects of Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) specially at the early decision-making stages. This disconnect between E-machine design teams and NVH teams has consistently posed a challenge, which is the experience seen in many OEMs. This paper introduces an innovative workflow that unifies these previously separate domains, facilitating comprehensive optimization by integrating NVH considerations with other E-machine objectives, efficiency, weight, packaging and cost. This paper highlights AVL's approach in achieving this transformation and demonstrates how this integrated approach sets a new standard for E-machine design.The presented novel approach, which is also patented, relies on AI-driven algorithms and computational tools. The important aspect of this methodology is that from the first step of E-machine design, NVH is included. This advanced methodology makes sure that with predictive modeling and advanced optimization, an optimal electric machine is developed for NVH without compromising on efficiency or costs.
{"title":"Synergizing Efficiency and Silence: A Novel Approach to E-Machine Development","authors":"M. Mehrgou, Inigo Garcia de Madinabeitia, Mohamed Essam Ahmed","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2914","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2914","url":null,"abstract":"In recent years, the automotive industry has dedicated significant attention to the evolution of electric vehicles (EVs). The Electric-machine (as motor and generator, here and onward called E-machine as more general term) as the heart of the EDU (Electric Drive Unit) is very important component of powertrain and is the one of the main focuses of development. Traditionally, E-machine design has primarily focused on factors like efficiency, packaging, and cost, often neglecting the critical aspects of Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) specially at the early decision-making stages. This disconnect between E-machine design teams and NVH teams has consistently posed a challenge, which is the experience seen in many OEMs. This paper introduces an innovative workflow that unifies these previously separate domains, facilitating comprehensive optimization by integrating NVH considerations with other E-machine objectives, efficiency, weight, packaging and cost. This paper highlights AVL's approach in achieving this transformation and demonstrates how this integrated approach sets a new standard for E-machine design.The presented novel approach, which is also patented, relies on AI-driven algorithms and computational tools. The important aspect of this methodology is that from the first step of E-machine design, NVH is included. This advanced methodology makes sure that with predictive modeling and advanced optimization, an optimal electric machine is developed for NVH without compromising on efficiency or costs.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"126 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141351674","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Andreas Rauter, L. Utzig, K. Weisheit, Steffen Marburg
Squeak and rattle (SAR) noise audible inside a passenger car causes the product quality perceived by the customer to deteriorate. The consequences are high warranty costs and a loss in brand reputation for the vehicle manufacturer in the long run. Therefore, SAR noise must be prevented. This research shows the application and experimental validation of a novel method to predict SAR noise on an actual vehicle interior component. The method is based on non-linear theories in the frequency domain. It uses the Harmonic Balance Method (HBM) in combination with the Alternating Frequency/Time Domain Method (AFT) to solve the governing dynamic equations. The simulation approach is part of a process for SAR noise prediction in vehicle interior development presented herein. In the first step, a state-of-the-art linear frequency-domain simulation estimates an empirical risk index for SAR noise emission. Critical spots prone to SAR noise generation are located and ranked. In the second step, the non-linear simulation approach calculates a quantitative measure for the SAR noise generated at these critical spots. This computation considers the root cause for SAR noise, the non-linear forces emerging from critical contact interaction, i.e. stick-slip for squeak and repeated impact for rattle noise. In the third step, a shaker test validates the numerical results. Therefore, a full-scale test rig is built comprising an equipped vehicle interior assembly mounted on a frame. Thereby, the presented SAR noise prediction process featuring the novel non-linear frequency domain simulation approach is validated and applied to developing a complex vehicle interior assembly.
乘用车内的尖叫和异响（SAR）噪音会导致客户认为产品质量下降。从长远来看，其后果是高昂的保修费用和汽车制造商的品牌声誉损失。因此，必须防止 SAR 噪音。本研究展示了一种预测实际汽车内饰件 SAR 噪音的新方法的应用和实验验证。该方法基于频域非线性理论。它使用谐波平衡法（HBM）结合频率/时域交替法（AFT）来求解支配动态方程。该模拟方法是本文介绍的汽车内饰开发中 SAR 噪声预测流程的一部分。第一步，采用最先进的线性频域模拟估算出 SAR 噪声发射的经验风险指数。对容易产生 SAR 噪音的关键点进行定位和排序。第二步，非线性模拟方法计算出这些关键点产生的合成孔径雷达噪声的量化指标。这种计算方法考虑了 SAR 噪声的根本原因，即临界接触相互作用产生的非线性力，即产生尖叫声的粘滑力和产生异响噪声的反复撞击力。第三步，振动台试验验证数值结果。因此，我们建立了一个全尺寸测试平台，包括一个安装在框架上的汽车内饰总成。因此，采用新颖的非线性频域模拟方法的 SAR 噪声预测过程得到了验证，并被应用于开发复杂的汽车内饰总成。
{"title":"Advanced Squeak and Rattle Noise Prediction for Vehicle Interior Development - Numerical Simulation and Experimental Validation","authors":"Andreas Rauter, L. Utzig, K. Weisheit, Steffen Marburg","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2925","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2925","url":null,"abstract":"Squeak and rattle (SAR) noise audible inside a passenger car causes the product quality perceived by the customer to deteriorate. The consequences are high warranty costs and a loss in brand reputation for the vehicle manufacturer in the long run. Therefore, SAR noise must be prevented. This research shows the application and experimental validation of a novel method to predict SAR noise on an actual vehicle interior component. The method is based on non-linear theories in the frequency domain. It uses the Harmonic Balance Method (HBM) in combination with the Alternating Frequency/Time Domain Method (AFT) to solve the governing dynamic equations. The simulation approach is part of a process for SAR noise prediction in vehicle interior development presented herein. In the first step, a state-of-the-art linear frequency-domain simulation estimates an empirical risk index for SAR noise emission. Critical spots prone to SAR noise generation are located and ranked. In the second step, the non-linear simulation approach calculates a quantitative measure for the SAR noise generated at these critical spots. This computation considers the root cause for SAR noise, the non-linear forces emerging from critical contact interaction, i.e. stick-slip for squeak and repeated impact for rattle noise. In the third step, a shaker test validates the numerical results. Therefore, a full-scale test rig is built comprising an equipped vehicle interior assembly mounted on a frame. Thereby, the presented SAR noise prediction process featuring the novel non-linear frequency domain simulation approach is validated and applied to developing a complex vehicle interior assembly.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"103 23","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141352321","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
While conventional methods like classical Transfer Path Analysis (TPA), Multiple Coherence Analysis (MCA), Operational Deflection Shape (ODS), and Modal Analysis have been widely used for road noise reduction, component-TPA from Model Based System Engineering (MBSE) is gaining attention for its ability to efficiently develop complex mobility systems.In this research, we propose a method to achieve road noise targets in the early stage of vehicle development using component-level TPA based on the blocked force method. An important point is to ensure convergence of measured test results (e.g. sound pressure at driver ear) and simulation results from component TPA.To conduct component-TPA, it is essential to have an independent tire model consisting of wheel-tire blocked force and tire Frequency Response Function (FRF), as well as full vehicle FRF and vehicle hub FRF. In this study, the FRF of the full vehicle and wheel-tire blocked force are obtained using an in-situ method with a precedent vehicle. The tire FRF is then obtained using the FBS (Frequency Based Substructuring) decomposition method after measuring the vehicle’s hub FRF. The consistency of the measured interior noise with the interior noise calculated through the component-level TPA is verified.Furthermore, in virtual development for future vehicle models, the interior noise of the virtual vehicle can be predicted by converging the early-stage vehicle CAE model, such as the architecture or Preliminary Design Stage, with the independent tire model from internal database or provided by tire suppliers. The spindle load (wheel input load) of the vehicle, that is calculated using the equation derived from the component-level TPA, is used as excitation. Based on this interior noise prediction, technical measures to reduce the interior noise and vibration level can be considered through alternative designs that reduce the wheel input load, the sound transmission or avoid the sensitive frequency bands.
{"title":"Roadnoise Reduction through Component-TPA with Test and Simulation Convergence Using Blocked Force","authors":"Junmin Park, Sangyoung Park","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2952","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2952","url":null,"abstract":"While conventional methods like classical Transfer Path Analysis (TPA), Multiple Coherence Analysis (MCA), Operational Deflection Shape (ODS), and Modal Analysis have been widely used for road noise reduction, component-TPA from Model Based System Engineering (MBSE) is gaining attention for its ability to efficiently develop complex mobility systems.In this research, we propose a method to achieve road noise targets in the early stage of vehicle development using component-level TPA based on the blocked force method. An important point is to ensure convergence of measured test results (e.g. sound pressure at driver ear) and simulation results from component TPA.To conduct component-TPA, it is essential to have an independent tire model consisting of wheel-tire blocked force and tire Frequency Response Function (FRF), as well as full vehicle FRF and vehicle hub FRF. In this study, the FRF of the full vehicle and wheel-tire blocked force are obtained using an in-situ method with a precedent vehicle. The tire FRF is then obtained using the FBS (Frequency Based Substructuring) decomposition method after measuring the vehicle’s hub FRF. The consistency of the measured interior noise with the interior noise calculated through the component-level TPA is verified.Furthermore, in virtual development for future vehicle models, the interior noise of the virtual vehicle can be predicted by converging the early-stage vehicle CAE model, such as the architecture or Preliminary Design Stage, with the independent tire model from internal database or provided by tire suppliers. The spindle load (wheel input load) of the vehicle, that is calculated using the equation derived from the component-level TPA, is used as excitation. Based on this interior noise prediction, technical measures to reduce the interior noise and vibration level can be considered through alternative designs that reduce the wheel input load, the sound transmission or avoid the sensitive frequency bands.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"34 34","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141354270","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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