Germination triggered by prolonged rainfall at maturity or high moisture levels during storage poses a major limitation to the use of wheat in food processing. Germinated wheat, however, represents a viable feed resource for ruminants and an opportunity for biological resource reutilization. This study systematically evaluated the effects of different germination durations on wheat nutritional composition, molecular structure, and ruminal degradability under laboratory conditions, and examined the mechanistic relationships between germination-induced molecular alterations and rumen microbial community dynamics.
Prolonged germination increased dry matter loss, elevated neutral detergent fiber and crude protein, and decreased starch and non-fiber carbohydrate levels (P < 0.050). Molecular structures analysis revealed marked alterations in protein secondary structures and carbohydrate molecular features, closely associated with nutrient remodeling (P < 0.050). In vitro rumen fermentation showed that extended germination increased ammonia nitrogen, butyrate, the acetate-to-propionate ratio, and CH4 production, while microbial crude protein synthesis efficiency and propionate concentration decreased (P < 0.050). Microbial analyses further demonstrated that 24 h-germinated wheat had minimal impact on rumen microbial communities or metabolites, whereas 72 h-germinated wheat enriched fiber- associated taxon (Rikenellaceae RC9 gut group), reduced starch-degrading bacteria (Ruminobacter and Succiniclasticum), and markedly downregulated the key metabolite N-acetyl-L-glutamate. In addition, integrated multi-omics analyses suggested that structural alterations in feed nutritional molecules may also be involved in shaping the characteristics of the rumen microbial community. Specifically, the relative abundances of Ruminobacter and Succiniclasticum were positively associated with TC1 and TCA1, whereas Rikenellaceae RC9 gut group showed positive associations with TC2, TCA2, TCA3, CECH, CECA, STC1, STC2, STC3, and STCA.
Germination markedly altered wheat nutritional and fermentative properties. Wheat germinated for 24 h can be directly included in rations, whereas wheat germinated for 72 h showed increased fiber content and enriched abundance of fiber-degrading bacteria, indicating its potential as a roughage component in ruminant diets. To ensure adequate energy supply, it should be appropriately combined with starch-rich feedstuffs to maximize nutritional value, optimize rumen fermentation and microbial activity, and enhance resource utilization efficiency.
Aminopolycarboxylic acids (APCAs) are widely used as chelating agents in agriculture to address iron (Fe) deficiency. However, the environmental concern of the most common APCAs, such as EDTA, has prompted the search for more sustainable alternative molecules. In this sense, the benzeneacetic acid 2-hydroxy-α-[(2-hydroxyethyl)amino] (BHH) has been presented as a novel chelating agent for Fe fertilization. This study investigates the photodegradation behavior of BBH Fe chelate, and compares it to the traditional Fe chelates (EDTA, HBED, and o,oEDDHA).
Photodegradation experiments were conducted under various conditions, such as chelate concentration, pH, and light source, which can vary depending on the growing conditions where these fertilizers are used. The results showed that BHH/Fe3+ exhibited an intermediate behavior between traditional phenolic and non-phenolic Fe chelates, undergoing degradation under light and dark conditions. The novel chelate BHH/Fe3+ was more susceptible to light than its phenolic analogues. However, it maintained at least one-half of the initial Fe concentration under the most sensitive conditions (more extended time, low concentration, low pH, and high irradiation intensity). This stability was higher than that of the EDTA/Fe3+, indicating moderate stability under light exposure. In contrast, the traditional phenolic chelates remained the most stable under the tested conditions. Notably, the novel chelate BHH/Fe3+ presented a great stability at pH 8, typical of calcareous soils where Fe chelates are required.
This study highlights the importance of assessing the photodegradation performance of Fe chelates, which are typically exposed to light during their agronomical use. The factors under investigation, including chelate concentration, pH, and light type, exhibited a differential impact on the stability of Fe chelates. The chemical structure of Fe chelates was found to be a predominant factor in determining their stability. The high stability observed for the BHH/Fe3+ at alkaline pH (less than 20–50% photodegraded in 7 days) suggests its potential as an alternative to traditional Fe chelates, especially EDTA/Fe3+. However, further research is still needed to determine its effectiveness in plants.
Plant diseases cause over 20% annual crop losses worldwide, with rising fungicide resistance and environmental concerns driving urgent demand for sustainable alternatives. Phytochemicals naturally occurring secondary metabolites such as thymol, berberine, and quercetin offer a promising solution due to their broad-spectrum antifungal, antibacterial, and antiviral activities, coupled with low environmental persistence and biodegradability. However, their efficacy is highly dependent on plant species, developmental stage, and environmental factors including temperature, light intensity, soil quality, and nutrient availability, all of which influence biosynthesis and bioactivity. Moreover, extraction methods such as aqueous, ethanol, or organic solvent-based techniques significantly affect phytochemical stability, solubility, and antimicrobial potency, contributing to variability in performance. Despite their potential, challenges related to compositional heterogeneity, phytotoxicity risks, and inconsistent regulatory frameworks have limited widespread agricultural adoption. This review synthesizes recent advances (2015–2025) in phytochemical research for plant disease management, focusing on biosynthesis pathways, extraction optimization, mechanisms of action, and innovative formulation technologies. We highlight how phytochemicals exert dual effects: directly disrupting pathogen membranes, inhibiting viral replication, and interfering with essential enzymes, while also priming plant immune responses through salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, and systemic acquired resistance signaling. Emerging technologies including ultrasound-assisted extraction, supercritical CO2 extraction, and nanoencapsulation enhance yield, stability, and field efficacy, enabling targeted, sustained delivery. Furthermore, breakthroughs in genetic engineering, microbial bioproduction, AI-guided formulation design, and circular economy models such as valorizing agro-waste for extraction are overcoming scalability and standardization barriers. We propose a framework for “smart phytochemical deployment” that integrates precision delivery, resistance management, and systems biology. This review positions phytochemicals not merely as alternatives to synthetic pesticides, but as next-generation tools for resilient, climate-smart, and sustainable agriculture.
Valsa canker of the Korla fragrant pear severely reduces yield and fruit quality. Biological control, owing to its environmental friendliness and safety for humans and animals, has become a major focus of recent research on plant disease management. Bacillus species are well known for their antagonistic activity against plant pathogens, and a biocontrol strain previously isolated in our laboratory (Bacillus atrophaeus YL84) exhibited strong inhibitory activity against Valsa pyri. The present study aimed to further evaluate the inhibitory effects of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by YL84 on V. pyri and to elucidate the underlying antagonistic mechanisms.
A paired double-Petri-dish assay was employed to evaluate VOC effects on hyphal growth, conidial germination, sporulation, hyphal penetrability, and activities of cell wall-degrading enzymes (CWDEs). Extracellular leakage was quantified to assess cell membrane integrity, while intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were assessed by fluorescent probe staining and image analysis. SPME–GC–MS was used to characterize the VOC profile. Results showed that YL84 VOCs significantly inhibited V. pyri hyphal growth, with an inhibition rate of 54.94%. VOC treatment reduced sporulation, abolished hyphal penetrability, and significantly decreased the activities of three CWDEs. The peak extracellular conductivity in the treatment group was 6.15-fold that of the control. ROS levels accumulated significantly over time, with fluorescence intensity increasing by 24.66% and 68.01% on days 3 and 7, respectively, relative to day 1. YL84 VOCs also significantly suppressed toxin biosynthesis, including a 28.97% reduction in protocatechuic acid; assays on detached plant material demonstrated that reduced toxin levels correlated with diminished lesion expansion. Additionally, six potential bioactive compounds, including branched-chain aldehydes and dimethyl disulfide, were identified.
In summary, VOCs from YL84 exhibit notable antagonistic activity against V. pyri, providing a theoretical basis for further elucidation of their biocontrol mechanisms and potential application.
Soil contamination with toxic heavy metals such as chromium (Cr) is becoming a serious global problem due to rapid industrial and agricultural activities. Nanoparticles and earthworms (Eisenia fetida) are efficient, environmentally friendly, and biodegradable and they enhance the solubility, absorption, and stability of metals. Therefore, the present study investigated the individual and combined effects of a nanobio strategy integrating X-ray diffraction-verified silica (SiO₂) and cerium dioxide (CeO₂) nanoparticles (50 µM L⁻¹) with earthworms (Eisenia fetida) on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown in chromium-spiked soil (100 mg kg⁻¹), focusing on plant growth and biomass, photosynthetic performance, oxidative stress regulation, antioxidant defense mechanisms, metabolic and nutritional status, chromium accumulation, molecular responses, and associated health risks. Results from the present study revealed that the Cr stress markedly reduced plant growth and biomass, photosynthetic pigments, gas exchange attributes, sugar metabolism, and mineral nutrient uptake, while inducing excessive oxidative stress, as indicated by elevated malondialdehyde and hydrogen peroxide levels. Cr exposure also disrupted antioxidant homeostasis, cellular compartmentalization, and stress-responsive gene expression. In contrast, individual and combined application of NPs and E. fetida significantly improved plant growth, photosynthetic performance, antioxidant defense capacity, and nutritional status. These treatments enhanced enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, stimulated the ascorbate–glutathione cycle and proline metabolism, and reduced oxidative damage. Moreover, NPs and E. fetida effectively restricted Cr accumulation in plant tissues, leading to a notable reduction in estimated daily Cr intake and associated health risk indices. Gene expression analysis further supported the activation of antioxidant and detoxification pathways under these treatments. Overall, the findings demonstrate that NPs and E. fetida, particularly in combination, are effective in mitigating Cr toxicity, improving wheat growth and physiological stability, and enhancing food safety in Cr-contaminated soils.
Temperature fluctuations beyond optimal limits such as heat or cold severely impair plant growth and productivity. Biostimulants are emerging as sustainable tools to enhance plant resilience under stress. Methyl salicylate (MeSA), a known defense modulator, holds promise as a biostimulant; however, its volatility and poor aqueous solubility limit its applications. To overcome these drawbacks, we have developed methyl-β-cyclodextrin (M-β-CD) based inclusion complex (IC) of MeSA. This study evaluated MeSA/M-β-CD-IC for improving temperature tolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana, offering a novel and environmentally compatible strategy for stress mitigation.
Phase solubility analysis revealed that modified β-cyclodextrin (M-β-CD) enhanced MeSA solubility 4.41-fold, with a 1:1 inclusion stoichiometry. Spectroscopic, morphological and thermal analysis (FTIR, NMR, SEM and TGA) confirmed successful complexation and improved thermal stability. The in vitro release profile of MeSA/M-β-CD-IC indicated ~ 91% cumulative MeSA release at 120 min, validating enhanced aqueous release. Biologically, MeSA inhibited seed germination at ≥ 2.5 mM, whereas M-β-CD promoted germination at low concentrations. Notably, the MeSA/M-β-CD-IC alleviated MeSA-induced inhibition, enabling successful germination across all concentrations. Under cold and heat stress, plants treated with M-β-CD showed robust growth and biomass, while the MeSA/M-β-CD-IC treatment achieved intermediate yet significant protection compared with MeSA alone. Photosynthetic efficiency (Φmax, Fv/Fm, NPQ) and pigment contents were improved in IC-treated plants, reflecting enhanced photoprotection. Cold stress induced higher oxidative damage than heat, but MeSA/M-β-CD-IC markedly reduced reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde accumulation. Molecularly, MeSA/M-β-CD-IC pre-priming enhanced the expression of cold-responsive (CBF, COR) and heat-responsive (HSFA, HSP) genes, along with major antioxidant genes (APX, CAT, GR, POD, SOD), indicating coordinated activation of stress signaling and tolerance pathways.
Encapsulation of MeSA within M-β-CD substantially improves its aqueous solubility and biological efficacy. The inclusion complex strengthens Arabidopsis tolerance to cold and heat through activation of antioxidant and thermoprotective mechanisms. This work highlights cyclodextrin-based encapsulation as a sustainable, scalable approach for delivering volatile biostimulants to enhance crop resilience under climate stress.
Water-Soluble Palm Fruit Extract (WSPFE) is recovered from oil palm vegetation liquor. WSPFE consists of water-soluble phenolic acids, including protocatechuic acid (PCA), p-hydroxybenzoic acid (p-HBA) and three isomers of caffeoylshikimic acid. WSPFE demonstrated several therapeutic activities in vitro and in vivo; however, its high sugar content relative to the phenolic acids suggests that a large volume would be required to achieve these effects. In this study, various methods were employed to remove sugars and concentrate the phenolic acids in WSPFE, including ethanolic precipitation, alkaline hydrolysis and solid-phase extraction (SPE) using Amberlite XAD-2 and Oasis HLB resins.
The most efficient enrichment method was SPE using Oasis HLB, which yielded a total phenolics content of 186.1 ± 0.3 mg g−1 GAE, followed by Amberlite XAD-2 resin at 119.5 ± 1.3 mg g−1 GAE. The highest antioxidant activity, along with the most significant inhibition of alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase and the highest glucose uptake in L6 skeletal muscle cells, was observed in sugar-removed WSPFE obtained via SPE.
WSPFE demonstrated more pronounced in vitro antihyperglycaemic effects following sugar removal. Compared to ethanol precipitation and alkaline hydrolysis, SPE using Oasis HLB and Amberlite resins was superior at enriching phenolic acids while effectively removing sugar.
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