Training is a frequently requested response to contentious police use of force incidents. Yet limited research evaluating use of force training has been conducted and most has focussed on officer perceptions of training, as opposed to the impact of training on use of force in the field. We address this gap through evaluating a 120-h Response to Resistance and Aggression training developed and implemented by the Saint Paul Police Department. By integrating leverage-based control and de-escalation techniques, this program sought to reduce the severity of force used by police officers. Results from machine learning models indicate that training did reduce reliance on pain-compliance techniques. Adjusting for factors including encounter, subject, and officer characteristics, training was associated with an estimated 3.3 percentage point reduction in officer injuries and a 1.3 percentage point reduction in significant subject injury. These findings contribute to the evidence base surrounding effective police training programs.
{"title":"From pain compliance to leverage-based control: Evidence of reduced use of force severity and injuries following police training","authors":"Jessica Huff, Sean Zauhar, Denis Agniel","doi":"10.1093/police/paae037","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paae037","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 Training is a frequently requested response to contentious police use of force incidents. Yet limited research evaluating use of force training has been conducted and most has focussed on officer perceptions of training, as opposed to the impact of training on use of force in the field. We address this gap through evaluating a 120-h Response to Resistance and Aggression training developed and implemented by the Saint Paul Police Department. By integrating leverage-based control and de-escalation techniques, this program sought to reduce the severity of force used by police officers. Results from machine learning models indicate that training did reduce reliance on pain-compliance techniques. Adjusting for factors including encounter, subject, and officer characteristics, training was associated with an estimated 3.3 percentage point reduction in officer injuries and a 1.3 percentage point reduction in significant subject injury. These findings contribute to the evidence base surrounding effective police training programs.","PeriodicalId":516781,"journal":{"name":"Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice","volume":"41 8","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140527155","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Rachael M. Rief, Samantha S. Clinkinbeard, Lexi Goodijohn, Trisha N. Rhodes
Women bring many benefits to policing but represent only 14% of sworn police in the United States. Researchers have examined different recruitment strategies, yet few have sought insight from women officers themselves. We explored women officers’ perspectives on recruiting and retaining more women in policing. Using semi-structured interviews, we asked 40 current and retired women officers how police agencies can better target women to increase their representation. Responses were analyzed using open coding techniques. Participants noted difficulty hiring amid a larger police staffing crisis. They also discussed the structure and culture of police work as barriers to the recruitment and retention of women and suggested outreach and mentorship as strategies to increase integration. These findings have policy and practice implications related to increasing the integration and entrance of women in policing. Women bring many benefits to policing but represent only 14% of sworn police in the United States. Researchers have examined different recruitment strategies, yet few have sought insight from women officers themselves. We explored women officers’ perspectives on recruiting and retaining more women in policing. Using semi-structured interviews, we asked 40 current and retired women officers how police agencies can better target women to increase their representation. Responses were analyzed using open coding techniques. Participants noted difficulty hiring amid a larger police staffing crisis. They also discussed the structure and culture of police work as barriers to the recruitment and retention of women and suggested outreach and mentorship as strategies to increase integration. These findings have policy and practice implications related to increasing the integration and entrance of women in policing.
{"title":"Ask the women in blue: Female officers’ thoughts on the recruitment and retention of women in policing","authors":"Rachael M. Rief, Samantha S. Clinkinbeard, Lexi Goodijohn, Trisha N. Rhodes","doi":"10.1093/police/paad102","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paad102","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 Women bring many benefits to policing but represent only 14% of sworn police in the United States. Researchers have examined different recruitment strategies, yet few have sought insight from women officers themselves. We explored women officers’ perspectives on recruiting and retaining more women in policing. Using semi-structured interviews, we asked 40 current and retired women officers how police agencies can better target women to increase their representation. Responses were analyzed using open coding techniques. Participants noted difficulty hiring amid a larger police staffing crisis. They also discussed the structure and culture of police work as barriers to the recruitment and retention of women and suggested outreach and mentorship as strategies to increase integration. These findings have policy and practice implications related to increasing the integration and entrance of women in policing. Women bring many benefits to policing but represent only 14% of sworn police in the United States. Researchers have examined different recruitment strategies, yet few have sought insight from women officers themselves. We explored women officers’ perspectives on recruiting and retaining more women in policing. Using semi-structured interviews, we asked 40 current and retired women officers how police agencies can better target women to increase their representation. Responses were analyzed using open coding techniques. Participants noted difficulty hiring amid a larger police staffing crisis. They also discussed the structure and culture of police work as barriers to the recruitment and retention of women and suggested outreach and mentorship as strategies to increase integration. These findings have policy and practice implications related to increasing the integration and entrance of women in policing.","PeriodicalId":516781,"journal":{"name":"Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice","volume":"28 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140520923","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Body-worn cameras (BWCs) record interactions between members of the public and law enforcement, with expected legal benefits. This study examines police officers’ perceptions of BWC usage in court through individual interviews and focus groups with 78 officers. Most of the participants were involved in a 6-month BWC pilot program, which was only the third BWC implementation in the Canadian province of Quebec. Police officers are largely optimistic about the use of BWCs in court and expect their footage to serve as visual evidence, to replace portions of written reports, and corroborate their testimony. However, they worry that BWC footage could be used by defense lawyers to challenge report discrepancies, leading to substantial impacts on legal proceedings. The BWC pilot program did not exacerbate their apprehensions about the technology’s potential limitations. The central role of police officers in the use of BWC footage as evidence is highlighted.
{"title":"Body-worn cameras and court proceedings: A qualitative study of police officers’ expectations","authors":"Brigitte Poirier, Étienne Charbonneau, R. Boivin","doi":"10.1093/police/paae007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paae007","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 Body-worn cameras (BWCs) record interactions between members of the public and law enforcement, with expected legal benefits. This study examines police officers’ perceptions of BWC usage in court through individual interviews and focus groups with 78 officers. Most of the participants were involved in a 6-month BWC pilot program, which was only the third BWC implementation in the Canadian province of Quebec. Police officers are largely optimistic about the use of BWCs in court and expect their footage to serve as visual evidence, to replace portions of written reports, and corroborate their testimony. However, they worry that BWC footage could be used by defense lawyers to challenge report discrepancies, leading to substantial impacts on legal proceedings. The BWC pilot program did not exacerbate their apprehensions about the technology’s potential limitations. The central role of police officers in the use of BWC footage as evidence is highlighted.","PeriodicalId":516781,"journal":{"name":"Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice","volume":"59 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139640754","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Joseph Schafer, Brenna Dunlap, Michael Mancini, Donald Linhorst
Women police officers may experience discrimination and work–life balance challenges that can impede their entry into and advancement and retention within police organizations. This study used in-depth interviews with 14 women police officers in the St. Louis, MO, metropolitan region to examine workplace stressors, experiences within policing, and perceptions of whether and how gender influenced those stressors and experiences. Participants expressed that they experienced discrimination based on gender, including direct discrimination, such as denial of specialized training, denial of lateral changes in duty assignments, and barriers to career advancement, and indirect discrimination in the form of teasing, harassment, and higher expectations. Many participants also reported they deployed coping strategies to insulate themselves from those experiences, isolated themselves from situations that might result in discrimination or harassment, or sought ways to mitigate the harm of those experiences. Police departments must create environments that support not just gender representation but gender equity.
{"title":"Gender discrimination and family stressors: Perceptions and experiences of women police officers","authors":"Joseph Schafer, Brenna Dunlap, Michael Mancini, Donald Linhorst","doi":"10.1093/police/paae027","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paae027","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 Women police officers may experience discrimination and work–life balance challenges that can impede their entry into and advancement and retention within police organizations. This study used in-depth interviews with 14 women police officers in the St. Louis, MO, metropolitan region to examine workplace stressors, experiences within policing, and perceptions of whether and how gender influenced those stressors and experiences. Participants expressed that they experienced discrimination based on gender, including direct discrimination, such as denial of specialized training, denial of lateral changes in duty assignments, and barriers to career advancement, and indirect discrimination in the form of teasing, harassment, and higher expectations. Many participants also reported they deployed coping strategies to insulate themselves from those experiences, isolated themselves from situations that might result in discrimination or harassment, or sought ways to mitigate the harm of those experiences. Police departments must create environments that support not just gender representation but gender equity.","PeriodicalId":516781,"journal":{"name":"Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice","volume":"47 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140519212","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Policing agencies in the United States and elsewhere continue to face staff shortages. Calls for greater diversity and different skills among police officers further complicate staffing efforts. Attempts to address these issues typically focus on recruitment and retention. This oversimplifies the problems and leads to piecemeal solutions. We draw on multiple threads of staffing research and field experience to highlight lessons for building effective police workforces. We illustrate the interconnected nature of staffing allocation, workload demand, performance objectives, staff supply and demand, workforce attributes, cohort management, demographic and generational shifts, and systemic circumstances. We suggest that agencies consider staffing from a systems perspective. We illustrate the elements of a police staffing system, discuss the broader ecosystem police staffing must consider, and present a six-step approach for managing police staffing and workload demand. Our lessons should be of interest to all who must address police staffing challenges and community expectations.
{"title":"Reframing the police staffing challenge: A systems approach to workforce planning and managing workload demand","authors":"Jeremy M Wilson, C. Grammich","doi":"10.1093/police/paae005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paae005","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 Policing agencies in the United States and elsewhere continue to face staff shortages. Calls for greater diversity and different skills among police officers further complicate staffing efforts. Attempts to address these issues typically focus on recruitment and retention. This oversimplifies the problems and leads to piecemeal solutions. We draw on multiple threads of staffing research and field experience to highlight lessons for building effective police workforces. We illustrate the interconnected nature of staffing allocation, workload demand, performance objectives, staff supply and demand, workforce attributes, cohort management, demographic and generational shifts, and systemic circumstances. We suggest that agencies consider staffing from a systems perspective. We illustrate the elements of a police staffing system, discuss the broader ecosystem police staffing must consider, and present a six-step approach for managing police staffing and workload demand. Our lessons should be of interest to all who must address police staffing challenges and community expectations.","PeriodicalId":516781,"journal":{"name":"Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice","volume":"118 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140521435","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Policing worldwide is facing a staffing and retention crisis. If the staffing exodus continues, communities will be left with too few police and large cohorts of inexperienced new recruits on the job. Drawing on 2,669 survey responses collected as part of a national study of law enforcement officers across the USA, we test an integrated theoretical model of the predictors of turnover intentions. We computed a path model using structural equation modelling, finding that job demand stressors (including trauma, organizational, and operational stressors), burnout, psychological distress, and commitment (including organizational commitment and occupational commitment) all play important roles in explaining the intentions of officers to exit the policing profession. Based on the study findings, the importance of trauma, organizational and operational job demand stress, and the differential impact of organizational and occupational commitment on police turnover intentions is established. Addressing burnout and psychological distress through a wellness agenda is likely to assist in stemming the outflow of officers from policing. The current study makes a significant empirical and practical contribution to the small body of existing police turnover research. The current research guides police leaders on the critical factors that must be considered when developing strategies and initiatives that aim to positively impact on the retention of officers within policing.
{"title":"Why do police consider leaving the profession?: The interplay between job demand stress, burnout, psychological distress, and commitment","authors":"Jacqueline M Drew, Elise Sargeant, Sherri Martin","doi":"10.1093/police/paae036","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paae036","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 Policing worldwide is facing a staffing and retention crisis. If the staffing exodus continues, communities will be left with too few police and large cohorts of inexperienced new recruits on the job. Drawing on 2,669 survey responses collected as part of a national study of law enforcement officers across the USA, we test an integrated theoretical model of the predictors of turnover intentions. We computed a path model using structural equation modelling, finding that job demand stressors (including trauma, organizational, and operational stressors), burnout, psychological distress, and commitment (including organizational commitment and occupational commitment) all play important roles in explaining the intentions of officers to exit the policing profession. Based on the study findings, the importance of trauma, organizational and operational job demand stress, and the differential impact of organizational and occupational commitment on police turnover intentions is established. Addressing burnout and psychological distress through a wellness agenda is likely to assist in stemming the outflow of officers from policing. The current study makes a significant empirical and practical contribution to the small body of existing police turnover research. The current research guides police leaders on the critical factors that must be considered when developing strategies and initiatives that aim to positively impact on the retention of officers within policing.","PeriodicalId":516781,"journal":{"name":"Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice","volume":"76 3-4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140523551","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Jeffrey S. Nowacki, Cassandra Olivarez, Alexander Hagan, Michael Hogan
Many police departments across the United States seize property from community members in a process referred to as civil asset forfeiture. While the use of this practice varies across departments, few studies have examined how police organizational structure may influence how agencies may use this tool. Using data from the 2016 & 2020 waves of the Law Enforcement Management & Administration Survey (LEMAS), we examine how organizational constructs influence whether and how frequently agencies collect asset forfeiture revenue. Findings suggest that a range of organizational and community-policing metrics influence civil asset forfeiture across both waves. Measures of professionalization were related to civil asset forfeiture in 2016, but not 2020.
{"title":"Police agencies and civil asset forfeiture: An organizational perspective","authors":"Jeffrey S. Nowacki, Cassandra Olivarez, Alexander Hagan, Michael Hogan","doi":"10.1093/police/paae035","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paae035","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 Many police departments across the United States seize property from community members in a process referred to as civil asset forfeiture. While the use of this practice varies across departments, few studies have examined how police organizational structure may influence how agencies may use this tool. Using data from the 2016 & 2020 waves of the Law Enforcement Management & Administration Survey (LEMAS), we examine how organizational constructs influence whether and how frequently agencies collect asset forfeiture revenue. Findings suggest that a range of organizational and community-policing metrics influence civil asset forfeiture across both waves. Measures of professionalization were related to civil asset forfeiture in 2016, but not 2020.","PeriodicalId":516781,"journal":{"name":"Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice","volume":"7 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140520168","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
In 2018, Iceland had Europe’s second-fewest police officers per capita and had experienced the continent’s biggest reduction in officers since 2009—after suffering the biggest financial crisis in modern economic history. Fewer officers, a growing, more diverse population, and a tourist boom fuelled a police staffing crisis peaking in the mid-2010s. In this case study, we document, using secondary data and interrupted time-series analysis, how moving basic police education to the university level in 2016 and shifting from face-to-face to flexible learning—a form of blended learning—helped Iceland accommodate more students, reverse the downward trend of police staffing, improve female representation, and raise the education level. Moreover, public trust in the police remained high after reform. The case of Iceland demonstrates that blended learning can facilitate police–university partnerships, accommodate more students by expanding access, capacity, and capability, help address staffing challenges, and optimize resources.
{"title":"Flexible education reform and Iceland’s police staffing crisis","authors":"G. Oddsson, O. O. Bragason, Rannveig Þórisdóttir","doi":"10.1093/police/paae009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paae009","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 In 2018, Iceland had Europe’s second-fewest police officers per capita and had experienced the continent’s biggest reduction in officers since 2009—after suffering the biggest financial crisis in modern economic history. Fewer officers, a growing, more diverse population, and a tourist boom fuelled a police staffing crisis peaking in the mid-2010s. In this case study, we document, using secondary data and interrupted time-series analysis, how moving basic police education to the university level in 2016 and shifting from face-to-face to flexible learning—a form of blended learning—helped Iceland accommodate more students, reverse the downward trend of police staffing, improve female representation, and raise the education level. Moreover, public trust in the police remained high after reform. The case of Iceland demonstrates that blended learning can facilitate police–university partnerships, accommodate more students by expanding access, capacity, and capability, help address staffing challenges, and optimize resources.","PeriodicalId":516781,"journal":{"name":"Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice","volume":"148 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140523163","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
S. L. Skaggs, Kisha Hardwick, Lauren Montgomery, Chris Harris
Since the death of Tyre Nichols in Memphis, TN, and others at the hands of police officers across the country, there has been a growing movement to defund police across the United States. In addition to this movement, police agencies have faced rapidly declining application pools. Fewer applicants, combined with retention issues faced by many departments, have caused staffing issues and led to many cultural impacts within the departments. Among these issues, one noticeable concern has been the ability to recruit and retain female. Through an analysis of interviews with female law enforcement personnel, this study examines problems faced with recruitment of new female officers, retention of veteran female officers, and experiences of women within nine police departments in a southern U.S. state.
{"title":"The policewoman: A tale of recruitment, retention, and experiences at nine agencies","authors":"S. L. Skaggs, Kisha Hardwick, Lauren Montgomery, Chris Harris","doi":"10.1093/police/paae021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paae021","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 Since the death of Tyre Nichols in Memphis, TN, and others at the hands of police officers across the country, there has been a growing movement to defund police across the United States. In addition to this movement, police agencies have faced rapidly declining application pools. Fewer applicants, combined with retention issues faced by many departments, have caused staffing issues and led to many cultural impacts within the departments. Among these issues, one noticeable concern has been the ability to recruit and retain female. Through an analysis of interviews with female law enforcement personnel, this study examines problems faced with recruitment of new female officers, retention of veteran female officers, and experiences of women within nine police departments in a southern U.S. state.","PeriodicalId":516781,"journal":{"name":"Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice","volume":"2 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140522044","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Charles Goldenbeld, Agnieszka Stelling, Sander van der Kint
{"title":"Police-assisted monitoring of impaired driving","authors":"Charles Goldenbeld, Agnieszka Stelling, Sander van der Kint","doi":"10.1093/police/paad089","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paad089","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":516781,"journal":{"name":"Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice","volume":"23 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140526085","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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