Pub Date : 2022-08-22DOI: 10.1080/17511321.2022.2114534
Miroslav Imbrišević
ABSTRACT World Rugby (WR) announced in 2020 that transwomen should not be competing at the elite level because of safety and fairness concerns. WR and Jon Pike, a philosopher of sport advising them, adopted a lexical approach to get a grip on the three values in play: safety, fairness, and inclusion. Previously, governing bodies tried to balance these competing values. Michael Burke recently published a paper taking aim at Pike’s lexical approach.
{"title":"Patriarchy in Disguise: Burke on Pike and World Rugby","authors":"Miroslav Imbrišević","doi":"10.1080/17511321.2022.2114534","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2022.2114534","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT World Rugby (WR) announced in 2020 that transwomen should not be competing at the elite level because of safety and fairness concerns. WR and Jon Pike, a philosopher of sport advising them, adopted a lexical approach to get a grip on the three values in play: safety, fairness, and inclusion. Previously, governing bodies tried to balance these competing values. Michael Burke recently published a paper taking aim at Pike’s lexical approach.","PeriodicalId":51786,"journal":{"name":"Sport Ethics and Philosophy","volume":"37 1","pages":"204 - 222"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-08-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"75235901","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-08-02DOI: 10.1080/17511321.2022.2107697
Kyle Fruh, Alfred Archer, Jake Wojtowicz
ABSTRACT When the 2022 FIFA Men’s World Cup was awarded to Qatar, it raised a number of moral concerns, perhaps the most prominent of which was Qatar’s woeful record on human rights in the arena of migrant labour. Qatar’s interest in hosting the event is aptly characterised as a case of ‘sportswashing’. The first aim of this paper is to provide an account of the nature of sportswashing, as a practice of using an association with sport, usually through hosting an event or owning a club (such as Newcastle United, owned by Saudi Arabia), to subvert the way that others attend to a moral violation for which the sportswashing agent is responsible. This may be done through distracting away from wrongdoing, minimising it, or normalising it. Second, we offer an account of the distinctive wrongs of sportswashing. The gravest moral wrong is the background injustice which sportswashing threatens to perpetuate. But the distinctive wrongs of sportswashing are twofold: first, it makes participants in sport (athletes, coaches, journalists, fans) complicit in the sportswasher’s wrongdoing, which extends a moral challenge to millions of people involved with sport. Second, sportswashing corrupts valuable heritage associated with sporting traditions and institutions. Finally, we examine how sportswashing ought to be resisted. The appropriate forms of resistance will depend upon different roles people fill, such as athlete, coach, journalist, fan. The basic dichotomy of resistance strategies is to either exit the condition of complicity, for example by refusing to participate in the sporting event, or to modify one’s engagement with the goal of transformation in mind. We recognize this is difficult and potentially burdensome: sports are an important part of many of our lives; our approach attempts to respect this.
{"title":"Sportswashing: Complicity and Corruption","authors":"Kyle Fruh, Alfred Archer, Jake Wojtowicz","doi":"10.1080/17511321.2022.2107697","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2022.2107697","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT When the 2022 FIFA Men’s World Cup was awarded to Qatar, it raised a number of moral concerns, perhaps the most prominent of which was Qatar’s woeful record on human rights in the arena of migrant labour. Qatar’s interest in hosting the event is aptly characterised as a case of ‘sportswashing’. The first aim of this paper is to provide an account of the nature of sportswashing, as a practice of using an association with sport, usually through hosting an event or owning a club (such as Newcastle United, owned by Saudi Arabia), to subvert the way that others attend to a moral violation for which the sportswashing agent is responsible. This may be done through distracting away from wrongdoing, minimising it, or normalising it. Second, we offer an account of the distinctive wrongs of sportswashing. The gravest moral wrong is the background injustice which sportswashing threatens to perpetuate. But the distinctive wrongs of sportswashing are twofold: first, it makes participants in sport (athletes, coaches, journalists, fans) complicit in the sportswasher’s wrongdoing, which extends a moral challenge to millions of people involved with sport. Second, sportswashing corrupts valuable heritage associated with sporting traditions and institutions. Finally, we examine how sportswashing ought to be resisted. The appropriate forms of resistance will depend upon different roles people fill, such as athlete, coach, journalist, fan. The basic dichotomy of resistance strategies is to either exit the condition of complicity, for example by refusing to participate in the sporting event, or to modify one’s engagement with the goal of transformation in mind. We recognize this is difficult and potentially burdensome: sports are an important part of many of our lives; our approach attempts to respect this.","PeriodicalId":51786,"journal":{"name":"Sport Ethics and Philosophy","volume":"1 1","pages":"101 - 118"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-08-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87089155","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-07-21DOI: 10.1080/17511321.2022.2091014
M. Campos, J. Parry, I. Martínková
ABSTRACT The recent alleged doping case of the figure skater Kamila Valieva at the Winter Olympic Games in Beijing 2022 dramatically raised the issue of the protection of minors in anti-doping policy. We firstly present the literature on doping in relation to minors. Secondly, we present WADA’s Protected Person (PP) concept and its implications. Thirdly, we analyse the WADA Code’s purpose and the vulnerability of minors under the Code, and fourthly, we identify the real threats from which minors should be protected by analysing the ineffective PP concept, and showing how it cannot be a real protection. We explain how preventing one threat can generate another, thus converting minor athletes from victims into suspects. We conclude by stressing the necessity for further research, and we indicate our future research direction, towards the development of a much wider concept of protection, and its application into sporting contexts.
{"title":"WADA’s Concept of the ’Protected Person’ – and Why it is No Protection for Minors","authors":"M. Campos, J. Parry, I. Martínková","doi":"10.1080/17511321.2022.2091014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2022.2091014","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT The recent alleged doping case of the figure skater Kamila Valieva at the Winter Olympic Games in Beijing 2022 dramatically raised the issue of the protection of minors in anti-doping policy. We firstly present the literature on doping in relation to minors. Secondly, we present WADA’s Protected Person (PP) concept and its implications. Thirdly, we analyse the WADA Code’s purpose and the vulnerability of minors under the Code, and fourthly, we identify the real threats from which minors should be protected by analysing the ineffective PP concept, and showing how it cannot be a real protection. We explain how preventing one threat can generate another, thus converting minor athletes from victims into suspects. We conclude by stressing the necessity for further research, and we indicate our future research direction, towards the development of a much wider concept of protection, and its application into sporting contexts.","PeriodicalId":51786,"journal":{"name":"Sport Ethics and Philosophy","volume":"98 1","pages":"58 - 69"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-07-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"81126999","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-07-21DOI: 10.1080/17511321.2022.2101682
G. Thonhauser
ABSTRACT Ultimate is a competitive team sport that is played, even at the highest level of competition, without external referees. The key to Ultimate as a self-refereed sport is the so-called ‘Spirit of the Game’. As this paper aims to show, the Spirit of the Game closely resembles Habermas’s theory of communicative action. This suggests that Habermas’s theory might be used to spell out the philosophical presuppositions of the Spirit of the Game. Most importantly, the requirements for players to serve as referees of their own game specified in the ‘Rules of Ultimate’ turn out to be reformulation of the four validity claims of communicative action. Moreover, the Spirit of the Game can be interpreted as aiming towards facilitating real-life decision-making procedures that resemble as much as possible Habermas’s concept of an ideal speech situation. On the other hand, Ultimate might serve as a case study for exploring how Habermas’s idea of rational deliberation works in the practice of a competitive sporting environment. Most importantly, it makes manifest that self-refereeing is a trust-based system. This suggests that communicative rationality can only unfold its power—the unforced force of the better argument—within a context in which participants trust that everyone participates in good faith towards the common goal of finding the best decision. Hence, investigating the case of Ultimate allows us to draw broader conclusions about the requirements for rational deliberation to work in practice.
{"title":"Competitive Team Sport Without External Referees: The Case of the Flying Disc Sport Ultimate","authors":"G. Thonhauser","doi":"10.1080/17511321.2022.2101682","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2022.2101682","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Ultimate is a competitive team sport that is played, even at the highest level of competition, without external referees. The key to Ultimate as a self-refereed sport is the so-called ‘Spirit of the Game’. As this paper aims to show, the Spirit of the Game closely resembles Habermas’s theory of communicative action. This suggests that Habermas’s theory might be used to spell out the philosophical presuppositions of the Spirit of the Game. Most importantly, the requirements for players to serve as referees of their own game specified in the ‘Rules of Ultimate’ turn out to be reformulation of the four validity claims of communicative action. Moreover, the Spirit of the Game can be interpreted as aiming towards facilitating real-life decision-making procedures that resemble as much as possible Habermas’s concept of an ideal speech situation. On the other hand, Ultimate might serve as a case study for exploring how Habermas’s idea of rational deliberation works in the practice of a competitive sporting environment. Most importantly, it makes manifest that self-refereeing is a trust-based system. This suggests that communicative rationality can only unfold its power—the unforced force of the better argument—within a context in which participants trust that everyone participates in good faith towards the common goal of finding the best decision. Hence, investigating the case of Ultimate allows us to draw broader conclusions about the requirements for rational deliberation to work in practice.","PeriodicalId":51786,"journal":{"name":"Sport Ethics and Philosophy","volume":"27 1","pages":"85 - 100"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-07-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"75477346","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-07-12DOI: 10.1080/17511321.2022.2099962
Brett A. Diaz, M. Campos, M. Škerbić, Cam Mallett, Francisco Javier López Frías
ABSTRACT After two years of discussions and revisions, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) published the 2021 World Anti-Doping Code on June 16, 2020. Among the most significant additions to this iteration of the Code was the inclusion of new categories of athletes subject to differential treatment by WADA, including the “protected person” category. In this paper, we examine the recent case of figure skater Kamila Valeryevna Valieva, the first athlete given differential treatment due to her being categorized as a “protected person.” We apply a relational justice framework to the case to provide a nuanced, descriptive analysis of the case generally, and the application of the “protected person” category in particular.We first describe details of the athlete, her performances and anti-doping rule violation, and the “protected person” category, to provide context. We then describe and analyze the relations between several institutional actors, principally WADA and the International Court for the Arbitration of Sport (CAS), the athlete and her team, and other figure skating athletes at the Beijing Winter Olympic Games. To do so, we use two concepts of justice, conservative and ideal, and their component parts, entitlement, desert, and need.Our description and analyses demonstrate that (1) WADA’s notions of justice are essentially conservative, while CAS acted toward more ideal notions, creating a fundamental disagreement in what was owed and to whom. We show (2) that CAS’ decision may have nonetheless caused harm to the athlete, raising questions about the efficacy and capability of the “protected person” category. Finally, (3) our analyses show the influence that notions of justice necessarily have these actors shape each other, thus change the sporting institutions and activities themselves.
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Pub Date : 2022-07-03DOI: 10.1080/17511321.2022.2101284
A. Edgar
On 5 June 2022 Wales played Ukraine for a place in the FIFA World Cup finals, which are due to be held in Qatar in November and December 2022. I suspect that all right-mined people wanted Ukraine to win. That win would have provided a significant boost to the morale of a nation suffering under an unprovoked military incursion and brutal war. As I write, there is little prospect that the war will have ended by November. Although right-minded people may have wanted Ukraine to win, I supported Wales, and was delighted with their ultimate victory. I felt slightly guilty and, for personal reasons, a little surprised at my delight. My support for Wales is relatively easy to explain. I have lived half my life in Cardiff, and in a period of more than thirty years support of the national sports team, be it soccer, rugby, or any other sport you care to mention, has become ingrained. It is second nature. Added to that, for most of those thirty years I lived in the suburb of Cardiff where Gareth Bale was born and went to school. I passed the Gareth Bale mural on Church Road every time I went to the local shops. Sport can play fast and loose with our political sensibilities. In sport, it seems, we put our national (or even tribal) loyalties above issues of international justice. Indeed, if Wales had let Ukraine win, ensuring their place in the World Cup finals, it can be argued that a sporting injustice would have been committed. In sport, one respects one’s opponent not by indulging them, however worthy the outcome of that indulgence might be, but by playing them as aggressively and fairly as you would in any match. After all, in 2001, the Arizona Diamondbacks did not let the New York Yankees win the World Series, despite 9/ 11. The Diamondbacks showed the Yankees the respect they deserved. So too, Wales respected Ukraine by not letting them win. There are added complexities to all this. Some of these complexities are personal. By June 2022 I had moved away from Cardiff, and back to my native England. Should a change of national loyalties have occurred (perhaps at the precise moment in which I received the keys to my new house)? Should I have become a right-minded neutral when Wales played? Even if a change should have occurred, it didn’t. Second nature, so painstakingly shaped over thirty years, does not, I discovered, change over night. That image of Gareth Bale on a wall in Church Road is surprisingly persuasive. What is significant here is that sport can be a crucible in which one’s sense of identity, and thus the entangled and sometimes contradictory communities and cultures that demand your loyalty, are tested and exposed. Through sport, it seems, one can learn a lot about one’s personal identity politics. In sport one begins to tease out the complexities of who you are, who you have been, and who you might become. SPORT, ETHICS AND PHILOSOPHY 2022, VOL. 16, NO. 3, 251–253 https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2022.2101284
{"title":"Wales vs Ukraine","authors":"A. Edgar","doi":"10.1080/17511321.2022.2101284","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2022.2101284","url":null,"abstract":"On 5 June 2022 Wales played Ukraine for a place in the FIFA World Cup finals, which are due to be held in Qatar in November and December 2022. I suspect that all right-mined people wanted Ukraine to win. That win would have provided a significant boost to the morale of a nation suffering under an unprovoked military incursion and brutal war. As I write, there is little prospect that the war will have ended by November. Although right-minded people may have wanted Ukraine to win, I supported Wales, and was delighted with their ultimate victory. I felt slightly guilty and, for personal reasons, a little surprised at my delight. My support for Wales is relatively easy to explain. I have lived half my life in Cardiff, and in a period of more than thirty years support of the national sports team, be it soccer, rugby, or any other sport you care to mention, has become ingrained. It is second nature. Added to that, for most of those thirty years I lived in the suburb of Cardiff where Gareth Bale was born and went to school. I passed the Gareth Bale mural on Church Road every time I went to the local shops. Sport can play fast and loose with our political sensibilities. In sport, it seems, we put our national (or even tribal) loyalties above issues of international justice. Indeed, if Wales had let Ukraine win, ensuring their place in the World Cup finals, it can be argued that a sporting injustice would have been committed. In sport, one respects one’s opponent not by indulging them, however worthy the outcome of that indulgence might be, but by playing them as aggressively and fairly as you would in any match. After all, in 2001, the Arizona Diamondbacks did not let the New York Yankees win the World Series, despite 9/ 11. The Diamondbacks showed the Yankees the respect they deserved. So too, Wales respected Ukraine by not letting them win. There are added complexities to all this. Some of these complexities are personal. By June 2022 I had moved away from Cardiff, and back to my native England. Should a change of national loyalties have occurred (perhaps at the precise moment in which I received the keys to my new house)? Should I have become a right-minded neutral when Wales played? Even if a change should have occurred, it didn’t. Second nature, so painstakingly shaped over thirty years, does not, I discovered, change over night. That image of Gareth Bale on a wall in Church Road is surprisingly persuasive. What is significant here is that sport can be a crucible in which one’s sense of identity, and thus the entangled and sometimes contradictory communities and cultures that demand your loyalty, are tested and exposed. Through sport, it seems, one can learn a lot about one’s personal identity politics. In sport one begins to tease out the complexities of who you are, who you have been, and who you might become. SPORT, ETHICS AND PHILOSOPHY 2022, VOL. 16, NO. 3, 251–253 https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2022.2101284","PeriodicalId":51786,"journal":{"name":"Sport Ethics and Philosophy","volume":"10 1","pages":"251 - 253"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-07-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"84435995","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-05-25DOI: 10.1080/17511321.2022.2077814
J. Parry
ABSTRACT This paper side-steps the question of whether ‘the’ concept of sport exists, or can be usefully analysed. Instead, I try to explain the much more modest aim of exhibition-analysis, which is to seek a description of an actually existing example of some concept of sport internal to a normative position. My example is that of Olympic-sport. I try to set out its logically necessary conditions, which of course are conditioned by its context within a theory that emphasises the values of formal competition, citius-altius-fortius, and excellence in contest, as well as rule-based procedural values related to fairness, justice and equality. In so doing, I readily accept that other kinds of sport can be similarly analysed, and I do not press the value claims of Olympic-sport. Instead, I try to show how Olympic-sport, properly construed, can accommodate the concerns of my critics with regard to sport’s play and game-like characteristics.
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Pub Date : 2022-05-18DOI: 10.1080/17511321.2022.2076728
Aderemi Artis
ABSTRACT J. S. Russell has argued that it is morally permissible for children to participate in dangerous sports and that much of value can be gained from such participation. He attempts to justify children’s participation in dangerous sport with two arguments, which he calls the common sense view and the uncommon sense view, and I apply the basic reasons given in these general arguments to the specific case of justifying children’s participation in mixed martial arts (MMA). To safeguard against wanton and gratuitous risk of great harm, Russell also includes some basic limitations for children’s participation in dangerous sports, and I use these limitations as a general framework for providing a number of additional constraints to render children’s MMA morally permissible.
{"title":"Children and Mixed Martial Arts","authors":"Aderemi Artis","doi":"10.1080/17511321.2022.2076728","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2022.2076728","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT J. S. Russell has argued that it is morally permissible for children to participate in dangerous sports and that much of value can be gained from such participation. He attempts to justify children’s participation in dangerous sport with two arguments, which he calls the common sense view and the uncommon sense view, and I apply the basic reasons given in these general arguments to the specific case of justifying children’s participation in mixed martial arts (MMA). To safeguard against wanton and gratuitous risk of great harm, Russell also includes some basic limitations for children’s participation in dangerous sports, and I use these limitations as a general framework for providing a number of additional constraints to render children’s MMA morally permissible.","PeriodicalId":51786,"journal":{"name":"Sport Ethics and Philosophy","volume":"1 1","pages":"607 - 622"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-05-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87403890","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-04-26DOI: 10.1080/17511321.2021.1974531
Steffen Borge, W. Morgan, Murray Smith, B. Weatherson
ABSTRACT This is a book symposium on Steffen Borge’s The Philosophy of Football. It has contributions from William Morgan, Murray Smith and Brian Weatherson with replies from Borge.
{"title":"Book Symposium. Steffen Borge, The Philosophy of Football","authors":"Steffen Borge, W. Morgan, Murray Smith, B. Weatherson","doi":"10.1080/17511321.2021.1974531","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2021.1974531","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT This is a book symposium on Steffen Borge’s The Philosophy of Football. It has contributions from William Morgan, Murray Smith and Brian Weatherson with replies from Borge.","PeriodicalId":51786,"journal":{"name":"Sport Ethics and Philosophy","volume":"31 2","pages":"333 - 396"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-04-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"72416076","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-04-15DOI: 10.1080/17511321.2022.2063936
F. Lebed
ABSTRACT In this article, I explore the relationship between competitive sports and the phenomenon of sports fandom as a unique symbiosis that qualitatively changes the nature of sport and reveals new aspects of human play in general. I note that spectators as consumers transform sport, in addition to indirectly and directly influencing and intervening in sports practice. As a result of this versatile involvement—from the initial form of competitive, formalized and unproductive game—sport can evolve through four successive stages: professional sport → sports show → ‘meta-play’ → “meta-sport “. The first of them has been sufficiently studied from two points of view, mainly: (a) control of training progress, effective coaching, and maximalised performance, and (b) management and marketing. The second form, sports show, is very rarely studied separately from the first stage (e.g.). Here I separate them. The third and fourth stages are proposed and studied here anew by a philosophical analysis of current and possible future developments and changes in the sports show. I analyse all these changes from a dialectical perspective and support it using the paradigm of tension between positive and negative freedom. From this point of view, all the mentioned transformations—from professional sport to meta-sport—are caused by changes (from synergy to tension and conflict) in the positive and negative freedom of spectators and sports organizations in a ‘dialectical symbiosis’. These are followed by the tensive contradiction between the principal freedom of human play and the self- and institutional restriction of freedom in the stage by stage evolving frames of game, sport, and professional sport. ‘Dialectical symbiosis’ is considered here as the fusion of entities, as a result of which one of them, at least, is transformed into a new quality.
{"title":"Dialectics in Transformations of Professional Sport","authors":"F. Lebed","doi":"10.1080/17511321.2022.2063936","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2022.2063936","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT In this article, I explore the relationship between competitive sports and the phenomenon of sports fandom as a unique symbiosis that qualitatively changes the nature of sport and reveals new aspects of human play in general. I note that spectators as consumers transform sport, in addition to indirectly and directly influencing and intervening in sports practice. As a result of this versatile involvement—from the initial form of competitive, formalized and unproductive game—sport can evolve through four successive stages: professional sport → sports show → ‘meta-play’ → “meta-sport “. The first of them has been sufficiently studied from two points of view, mainly: (a) control of training progress, effective coaching, and maximalised performance, and (b) management and marketing. The second form, sports show, is very rarely studied separately from the first stage (e.g.). Here I separate them. The third and fourth stages are proposed and studied here anew by a philosophical analysis of current and possible future developments and changes in the sports show. I analyse all these changes from a dialectical perspective and support it using the paradigm of tension between positive and negative freedom. From this point of view, all the mentioned transformations—from professional sport to meta-sport—are caused by changes (from synergy to tension and conflict) in the positive and negative freedom of spectators and sports organizations in a ‘dialectical symbiosis’. These are followed by the tensive contradiction between the principal freedom of human play and the self- and institutional restriction of freedom in the stage by stage evolving frames of game, sport, and professional sport. ‘Dialectical symbiosis’ is considered here as the fusion of entities, as a result of which one of them, at least, is transformed into a new quality.","PeriodicalId":51786,"journal":{"name":"Sport Ethics and Philosophy","volume":"6 3","pages":"589 - 606"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-04-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"72613238","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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