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Anne Peters, Animals in International Law 安妮·彼得斯,《国际法中的动物》
Q2 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2022-01-02 DOI: 10.1080/13880292.2022.2077365
Cebuan Bliss
The “animal turn,” prompting us to question the hegemonic understanding of animals as mere resources, is gaining increasing attention in legal academic literature.1 Animals in International Law is, therefore, a helpful guide for this period, providing a comprehensive picture of the ways in which animals are affected by domestic and international law. The book provides detail and clarity about the way animals are classified in the eyes of the law and in academic literature, such as the distinction between domestic and wild animals. It also reviews the treatment of animals by different institutions and in different contexts, such as in the European Union. The book explains the significance of international law for animals, detailing its impact on regional, national and local policy. We are beginning to experience a paradigm shift in legal scholarship due to growing work on concepts such as Earth system law, which acknowledges that law has tended to privilege humans to the detriment of other natural entities, widening the definition of legal subjects deserving of rights to include non-humans.2 However, Earth system law and related movements focus on systems, rather than individuals, which means that the interests of the individuals within these systems are subsumed in the pursuit of a utilitarian greater good. Professor Anne Peters draws on her historically grounded previous work, including on international human rights law, to make the case in Animals in International Law for the importance of individual non-human rights.3 Chapter I notes that there is no international treaty that grants rights to animals in a broad sense, or that accords them universal standards of welfare.4 The book also addresses the sparse legal provisions in international law on wild animal welfare specifically, adding to the growing body of scholarly literature focusing on this question.5 Furthermore, in Chapter I, Animals in International Law puts forward the assertion that where international law leads, it sets a precedent that others follow. Peters argues that the international codification of fundamental rights for animals would convey both practical and symbolic benefits (24). Further elucidated are the reasons why current legal systems are not wholly adequate for the enactment of animal rights because these systems are designed for purposes to further human interests, which directly conflict with these goals. Current legal systems, she explains, are not zoo-centric. For example, the private and corporate rights model and rights of nature (469) protect the interests of humans, their assets, and ecosystems as a whole, but not
“动物转向”促使我们质疑对动物仅仅是资源的霸权理解,这在法律学术文献中越来越受到关注因此,《国际法中的动物》是这一时期的有益指南,全面介绍了动物受到国内法和国际法影响的方式。这本书详细而清晰地介绍了动物在法律和学术文献中的分类方式,比如家养动物和野生动物的区别。它还审查了不同机构和不同背景下的动物待遇,例如在欧盟。这本书解释了国际法对动物的重要性,详细说明了它对地区、国家和地方政策的影响。由于对地球系统法等概念的研究越来越多,我们开始经历法律学术的范式转变。地球系统法承认,法律倾向于赋予人类特权,损害其他自然实体,扩大了应享有权利的法律主体的定义,包括非人类然而,地球系统法律和相关运动关注的是系统,而不是个人,这意味着这些系统中个人的利益被纳入对功利主义更大利益的追求中。安妮·彼得斯(Anne Peters)教授利用她以前的历史工作,包括国际人权法方面的工作,在《国际法中的动物》一书中阐述了个人非人权的重要性第一章指出,没有任何国际条约赋予动物广义的权利,也没有任何国际条约赋予动物普遍的福利标准这本书还专门论述了国际法中关于野生动物福利的稀疏法律规定,为关注这一问题的日益增长的学术文献增添了新的内容此外,在第一章“国际法中的动物”中提出了这样一种主张,即国际法在哪里起作用,它就在哪里树立先例,其他国家就会效仿。Peters认为,对动物的基本权利进行国际编纂将带来实际的和象征性的好处(24)。进一步阐明的原因是,目前的法律制度并不完全适合制定动物权利,因为这些制度是为了促进人类利益而设计的,这与这些目标直接冲突。她解释说,目前的法律体系并不是以动物园为中心的。例如,私人和公司权利模式以及自然权利(469)保护人类、人类资产和整个生态系统的利益,但并非如此
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引用次数: 0
Law of Armed Conflict in Non-International Hostilities: The Militarisation of Wildlife Conservation in Africa 非国际敌对行动中的武装冲突法:非洲野生动物保护的军事化
Q2 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2021-10-02 DOI: 10.1080/13880292.2021.2059239
G. Mogomotsi, P. K. Mogomotsi
Abstract This article discusses the controversial issue of the militarisation of conservation in the African context. It situates the use of military tactics in wildlife conservation within sovereignty debates in public international law. Further, this article argues that in the purview of the principle of permanent sovereignty over natural resources, nation-states are entitled to invoke sovereign rights to target and kill armed poachers operating in African national parks. It is argued in this article that nation states are entitled to invoke targeted killings during anti-poaching operations under international humanitarian law. Furthermore, this article submits that the law of armed combat may be invoked in non-international hostilities including in anti-poaching operations. This article characterises suspected poachers as combatants engaging in hostilities in the domestic context. In the absence of the developed jurisprudence of international tribunals, the case law of the Israeli Supreme Court on targeted killings is briefly discussed and is contextualised for anti-poaching operations. The article concludes that targeted killings are a legitimate tool in enforcing anti-poaching laws and preventing the extinction of wildlife populations in the African continent and elsewhere in the world.
摘要本文讨论了在非洲环境下有争议的保护军事化问题。它将在野生动物保护中使用军事策略置于国际公法主权辩论的范围内。此外,本文认为,在自然资源永久主权原则的范围内,民族国家有权援引主权权利来瞄准和杀死在非洲国家公园活动的武装偷猎者。本文认为,根据国际人道主义法,民族国家有权在反偷猎行动中援引有针对性的杀戮。此外,该条还指出,在非国际敌对行动中,包括在反偷猎行动中,可以援引武装战斗法。这篇文章将涉嫌偷猎者定性为参与国内敌对行动的战斗人员。在缺乏发达的国际法庭判例的情况下,本文简要讨论了以色列最高法院关于定点清除的判例法,并将其与反偷猎行动结合起来。这篇文章的结论是,在执行反偷猎法律和防止非洲大陆和世界其他地方野生动物种群灭绝方面,定点猎杀是一种合法的工具。
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引用次数: 0
Determinants and Drivers of Wildlife Trafficking: A Qualitative Analysis in Uganda 野生动物贩运的决定因素和驱动因素:乌干达的定性分析
Q2 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2021-10-02 DOI: 10.1080/13880292.2021.2019381
Saba Kassa, C. Baez-Camargo, Jacopo Costa, Robert Lugolobi
Abstract The article analyses drivers and determinants of illicit wildlife trade (IWT), targeting those factors that support the participation of individuals in poaching and transportation of wildlife goods. These factors are often explained in economic and institutional terms. Recently, scholars have started to recognise the importance of socio-cultural and behavioural drivers in influencing the individual propensity to engage in wildlife trafficking. The goal is clarifying how behavioural drivers may spur individuals to engage in these phenomena. The research provides further understanding on why wildlife trafficking happens by focusing on the role of the socio-economic context, the broader governance environment, and behavioural drivers associated with sociality and stereotypes in spurring participation in IWT. The research is based on fieldwork in Uganda, specifically on 47 interviews with Ugandan-based and international anti-IWT experts and eight focus group discussions with wildlife conservation and anti-corruption experts in Kampala, members of reformed poachers’ networks in Western Uganda, and individuals living around a wildlife habitat in northern Uganda. The findings highlight that illicit wildlife trade is spurred by the wish for financial resources (economic factors) and weak governance (quality of governance), and it is justified by mental models, that is, the behavioural drivers such as socio-contextual and normative mechanisms. The research shows the importance of reflecting on the role that behavioural drivers, including sociality and shared understandings of IWT, play in influencing the propensity of individuals to engage in poaching and the early stages of wildlife trafficking.
摘要本文分析了野生动物非法贸易的驱动因素和决定因素,针对那些支持个人参与偷猎和野生动物货物运输的因素。这些因素通常用经济和体制的术语来解释。最近,学者们开始认识到社会文化和行为驱动因素在影响个人从事野生动物贩运倾向方面的重要性。其目的是阐明行为驱动因素是如何促使个人参与这些现象的。该研究通过关注社会经济背景、更广泛的治理环境以及与社会性和刻板印象相关的行为驱动因素在促进参与内贸交易中的作用,进一步了解了野生动物贩运发生的原因。这项研究是基于在乌干达的实地调查,特别是对47位乌干达和国际反内猎野生动物专家的采访,以及与坎帕拉野生动物保护和反腐败专家、乌干达西部改革后的偷猎者网络成员以及乌干达北部野生动物栖息地附近的个人进行的8次焦点小组讨论。研究结果强调,野生动物非法贸易受到对财政资源的渴望(经济因素)和治理薄弱(治理质量)的刺激,并得到心理模型的证明,即社会背景和规范机制等行为驱动因素。这项研究表明,必须反思行为驱动因素,包括社会性和对内猎野生动物的共同理解,在影响个人从事偷猎和野生动物贩运的早期阶段的倾向方面所起的作用。
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引用次数: 2
Comparative Conservation Strategy Efficacy for Grus japonensis and Grus americana: A Post-Policy Implementation Assessment 日本松茸和美洲松茸保护策略效果比较:政策实施后评价
Q2 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2021-10-02 DOI: 10.1080/13880292.2021.2006422
Nathanial Gronewold
Abstract Southeastern Texas/northern Alberta and northeastern Japan are homes to populations of two extremely similar species of cranes with similar conservation histories. The whooping crane of North America, specifically the Aransas–Wood Buffalo (AWB) migratory flock, and the red-crowned crane of Hokkaido were both pushed to the brink of extinction with surviving populations numbering 21 and 33 individuals, respectively, in 1952. Both species have been subjects of focused rehabilitation efforts led by national governments. While both governments relied on a variety of conservation methods throughout their programs’ histories, the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (FWS) focuses mainly on habitat management, while in Japan the Ministry of the Environment (MoE) and its predecessors lean most heavily on a direct population management strategy via a long-standing winter artificial feeding program. The recovery histories of these two similar species provide a unique opportunity for comparing and contrasting the relative efficacy of two primary endangered species management approaches: habitat management versus direct population management through artificial feeding. An initial review of these two case studies reveals indications that artificial feeding in periods of lean food availability resulted in much faster overall population recovery in Japan, with the red-crowned crane population expanding at a rate approximately 11% to 26% faster than the AWB whooping crane population over a 68-year period reviewed in this study. Today Japan’s red-crowned crane population is more than triple the size of North America’s AWB whooping crane population: 1,900 red-crowned cranes by 2020 according to the Red-Crowned Crane Conservancy (RCCC), versus 506 AWB whooping cranes as of 2019 per FWS. These results suggest Japanese conservationists may have uncovered a method for ensuring faster population recovery in an endangered species: sustained long-term artificial feeding during times of least forage availability. Further lessons can be drawn from how these two species respond to changes currently underway in both programs. Much remains unknown. Additional research is necessary to eliminate other variables that could explain these population growth outcomes. But an early post-policy implementation assessment points to the artificial feeding campaign in Japan as the reason for the differences in historical population recovery.
德克萨斯州东南部/阿尔伯塔省北部和日本东北部是两种极其相似的鹤的栖息地,它们有着相似的保护历史。北美的鸣鹤,特别是阿兰萨斯-伍德野牛(AWB)迁徙群,和北海道的丹顶鹤都在1952年被推到了灭绝的边缘,分别只有21只和33只存活。这两个物种都是由国家政府主导的重点修复工作的对象。虽然两国政府在其项目的历史上都依赖于各种各样的保护方法,但美国鱼类和野生动物管理局(FWS)主要侧重于栖息地管理,而日本环境省(MoE)及其前身则主要依赖于通过长期的冬季人工喂养计划进行直接的种群管理战略。这两个相似物种的恢复历史为比较和对比两种主要的濒危物种管理方法的相对效果提供了独特的机会:栖息地管理与通过人工饲养的直接种群管理。对这两个案例研究的初步审查表明,在瘦肉可得期人工喂养导致日本整体种群恢复速度更快,丹顶鹤种群数量的增长速度比本研究回顾的68年期间的AWB呼鸣鹤种群增长速度约为11%至26%。今天,日本的丹顶鹤数量是北美AWB鸣鹤数量的三倍多:根据丹顶鹤保护协会(RCCC)的数据,到2020年,日本的丹顶鹤数量将达到1900只,而根据FWS的数据,截至2019年,日本的丹顶鹤数量为506只。这些结果表明,日本环保主义者可能已经发现了一种确保濒危物种种群更快恢复的方法:在饲料供应最少的时候持续长期人工喂养。进一步的教训可以从这两个物种如何应对目前正在进行的变化中得出。还有很多未知之处。需要进一步的研究来消除可能解释这些人口增长结果的其他变量。但政策实施后的早期评估指出,日本的人工喂养运动是历史上数量恢复差异的原因。
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引用次数: 0
Ex Gratia Payments for Loss of Human Life Due to Wild Animal Attacks in Botswana: Implications for Practice and Policies 博茨瓦纳野生动物袭击造成人命损失的特惠赔偿:对实践和政策的影响
Q2 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2021-10-02 DOI: 10.1080/13880292.2021.2019379
Israel R. Blackie
Abstract Ex gratia compensation is paid only to families of human–wildlife conflict (HWC) victims who are killed by wildlife, not to victims who are injured by wild animals, regardless of the severity of the injury, even if it results in permanent disability. This study was conducted to assess the relevance and effectiveness of ex gratia payments to victims of wild animal attacks. Participants included traditional leadership (chiefs), government officials, wildlife nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and victims and their caretakers. Local people exposed to life-threatening wildlife attacks express fear and animosity towards wild animals, and they also feel left out from and disappointed by a fragmented government service delivery system. In particular, delays in processing ex gratia compensation payment militate against the effectiveness of the ex gratia compensation scheme. Accordingly, the payment of ex gratia process should be re-engineered to improve its effectiveness so that it serves its novel objectives. This study recommends establishment of an Ex Gratia Scheme or Ex Gratia Tribunal where all HWC injuries or death incidents can be effectively dealt with. Most importantly, compensation should consider health care and rehabilitation, loss of reasonable income, and associated disability care as a result of being attacked by the wild animals.
摘要特惠赔偿只支付给被野生动物杀害的人类与野生动物冲突(HWC)受害者的家属,而不支付给被野生动物伤害的受害者,无论伤害的严重程度如何,即使造成永久性残疾。本研究旨在评估向野生动物袭击受害者提供特惠赔偿的相关性和有效性。与会者包括传统领导(酋长)、政府官员、野生动物非政府组织(ngo)、受害者及其照顾者。面临野生动物威胁的当地人对野生动物表达了恐惧和敌意,他们也对支离破碎的政府服务体系感到失望和失望。特别是,处理特惠赔偿的延误影响了特惠赔偿计划的效力。因此,应重新设计特惠付款程序,以提高其效力,使其服务于新的目标。这项研究建议设立特惠计划或特惠审裁处,以有效处理所有工伤或死亡事件。最重要的是,赔偿应考虑到因被野生动物袭击而造成的保健和康复、合理收入的损失以及相关的残疾护理。
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引用次数: 0
From the Desk of the Editor-in-Chief 总编辑的办公桌上
Q2 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2021-10-02 DOI: 10.1080/13880292.2021.2019378
Richard Caddell
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引用次数: 0
CITES enforcement information sharing—if you don’t know where you’ve come from … you don’t know where you’re going CITES执法信息共享——如果你不知道你从哪里来,你就不知道你要去哪里
Q2 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2021-10-02 DOI: 10.1080/13880292.2022.2043410
R. Chandran, S. Alagesan, W. D. de Vries
Abstract This study explores the evolution of the compliance mechanism of the CITES Convention and draws a historic timeline describing how various political and economic factors changed the course of decision making on wildlife enforcement information sharing. Focusing more on the deliberations at the United Nations and in particular at the CITES Conference of Parties (CoP) and standing committee meetings, the authors excavate various paradigm shifts within CITES enforcement and compliance decisions, extending from the origin of the convention to the recent developments at CITES CoP 18. Here, the authors do not seek to evaluate the whole history of the CITES Convention itself. Rather, they investigate a specific aspect, namely, enforcement matters and the role of stakeholders and events that influenced the CITES decision-making process on enforcement information sharing and development of enforcement information systems. The main objective of this article is to address a key question: What were the reasons for the failure of enforcement information sharing in CITES? This study is particularly relavent during the time of the COVID-19 pandemic, where there is little evidence to show the link between illegal wildlife crime and COVID-19.
摘要本研究探讨了《濒危野生动植物种国际贸易公约》(CITES)履约机制的演变,并绘制了一个历史时间线,描述了各种政治和经济因素如何改变野生动物执法信息共享的决策过程。作者更多地关注联合国,特别是CITES缔约方大会(CoP)和常设委员会会议的审议,挖掘了CITES执法和合规决策中的各种范式转变,从公约的起源延伸到CITES CoP 18的最新发展。在这里,作者并不试图评估CITES公约本身的整个历史。相反,它们调查的是一个具体方面,即执法事项以及影响CITES执法信息共享和执法信息系统开发决策过程的利益攸关方和事件的作用。本文的主要目的是解决一个关键问题:CITES执法信息共享失败的原因是什么?这项研究在2019冠状病毒病大流行期间尤其相关,因为几乎没有证据表明非法野生动物犯罪与2019冠状病毒病之间存在联系。
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引用次数: 0
The Necessity of Cooperation in Criminal Wildlife Matters: A Case Study of The Challenges Faced and Cooperative Mechanisms Available to Canadian Wildlife Officials 刑事野生动物事务合作的必要性:加拿大野生动物官员面临的挑战和合作机制的案例研究
Q2 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2021-10-02 DOI: 10.1080/13880292.2021.2019380
Samantha de Vries
Abstract This article presents and analyzes the mechanisms for cooperation used by wildlife officials in criminal wildlife matters in Canada, through qualitative in-depth interviews with ten Canadian experts. Canada has been used as a transit country for the illicit wildlife trade (IWT) and there is a domestic, regional, and international market for “product” derived from Canadian species. The majority of larger scale criminal cases have involved interagency or bilateral cooperation between criminal justice officials, particularly with the United States. An analysis of these cooperative efforts has been needed. This article’s findings suggest that: (1) wildlife enforcement in Canada relies on cooperation due to scarce resources and lack of priority given to wildlife crimes; (2) interagency training aids forensic capabilities; (3) more prosecutorial dedication to wildlife crimes in Canada, larger budgets, and supported initiatives for enforcement and forensics may result in the detection and prosecution of more crimes; and (4) cooperation should be actively supported because it appears to be the backbone of criminal wildlife investigations in the country, which have exposed different levels of criminal sophistication and involvement in the IWT. The findings help identify Canadian enforcement obstacles and best practices that highlight the need for increased political will and public support for wildlife enforcement and wildlife forensics in combating and identifying wildlife crime.
摘要本文通过对10位加拿大专家的定性深入访谈,介绍并分析了加拿大野生动物官员在刑事野生动物事务中使用的合作机制。加拿大一直被用作非法野生动物贸易(IWT)的过境国,从加拿大物种衍生的“产品”有国内、区域和国际市场。大多数规模较大的刑事案件涉及刑事司法官员之间的机构间或双边合作,特别是与美国的合作。需要对这些合作努力进行分析。研究结果表明:(1)由于资源稀缺和对野生动物犯罪缺乏重视,加拿大的野生动物执法依赖于合作;(2)跨部门培训艾滋病法医能力;(3)加大对加拿大野生动物犯罪的检控力度,加大预算,并支持执法和取证方面的举措,可能会导致更多犯罪的发现和起诉;(4)应积极支持合作,因为它似乎是该国野生动物犯罪调查的支柱,已经暴露了不同程度的犯罪复杂性和参与IWT。调查结果有助于确定加拿大的执法障碍和最佳做法,强调在打击和识别野生动物犯罪方面,需要增加政治意愿和公众对野生动物执法和野生动物法医的支持。
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引用次数: 1
Fumbling Out the Effective Pathways to Apply the Wildlife and Forest Analytic Toolkit in the Mekong Region: Looking at Data and Analysis Perspectives 探索在湄公河地区应用野生动物和森林分析工具包的有效途径:从数据和分析角度看
Q2 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2021-10-02 DOI: 10.1080/13880292.2021.2006426
H. Luong
Abstract The Wildlife and Forest Analytic Toolkit, introduced by the International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC), is designed to increase the effectiveness of measures combating wildlife and forest crimes (WAFCs). Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) countries have applied this toolkit as one of their priority actions after recognizing concerns about the biodiversity system and conservational zone through several illegal wildlife trade (IWT) activities. Although the toolkit has realized its fundamental objectives to readjust legal frameworks, enhance enforcement involvement, and improve their judicial and prosecutorial operations, the last components of data and analysis have not yet been implemented. This leads to slow updates of both trends and patterns concerning WAFCs that raise questions about the real levels of exploitation in the region. Using gray literature with published materials, combined with the IWT’s database in the CITES system, this study examines why the data and analysis component of the Toolkit created obstacles in the GMS countries. Findings point to there being at least four main challenges to implementing data and analysis as the toolkit has recommended in the region: (1) availability and reliability of data; (2) data collection; (3) data resources (internal vs. external level); and (4) analytic research and its related monitors. Some practical recommendations call for further discussions. Meanwhile, updated information and specific data relating to zoonotic disease transmission are timely, considering the coronavirus pandemic.
由国际打击野生动物犯罪联盟(ICCWC)推出的野生动物和森林分析工具包旨在提高打击野生动物和森林犯罪(WAFCs)措施的有效性。大湄公河次区域(GMS)国家在通过一些非法野生动物贸易(IWT)活动认识到对生物多样性系统和保护区的担忧后,将这一工具包作为其优先行动之一。虽然该工具包已实现了调整法律框架、加强执法参与和改善司法和检察行动的基本目标,但数据和分析的最后组成部分尚未实施。这就导致有关西非战区的趋势和模式更新缓慢,从而使人们对该区域的实际开采水平产生疑问。本研究利用灰色文献和已出版材料,结合IWT在CITES系统中的数据库,探讨了工具包的数据和分析部分在大湄公河次区域国家造成障碍的原因。调查结果表明,按照工具包在该地区所建议的那样,在实施数据和分析方面至少存在四个主要挑战:(1)数据的可用性和可靠性;(2)数据收集;(3)数据资源(内部与外部);(4)分析研究及其监控。一些实际的建议需要进一步讨论。同时,考虑到冠状病毒大流行,与人畜共患疾病传播有关的最新信息和具体数据是及时的。
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引用次数: 1
Wetlands in Poland and Russia: The Legal Framework for Their Protection and Use 波兰和俄罗斯的湿地:保护和利用湿地的法律框架
Q2 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2021-10-02 DOI: 10.1080/13880292.2021.2006418
A. Anisimov, E. Zębek, O. Popova
Abstract The authors explore the ecological value of wetlands, the notion that laid the foundation of the Ramsar Convention and boosted the development of national legislation for the protection of these ecosystems in many countries. The authors analyzed the main instruments of wetland protection, set out in the Ramsar Convention, and investigated the effect of the Convention on the development of legislation in Poland and Russia. The authors showed that wetlands can be located both within the boundaries of specially protected natural zones and beyond them, which complicates their legal protection. The development and introduction of a new legal concept of semiprotected areas can be a solution to this problem. Semiprotected areas have a less stringent regime compared to nature reserves or national parks. At the same time, they effectively limit economic and other types of activities posing a threat to wetlands. This design of legal protection provides new opportunities for the rational use of wetland resources.
摘要本文探讨了湿地的生态价值,这一概念为《拉姆萨尔公约》奠定了基础,并推动了许多国家对湿地生态系统保护的国家立法发展。作者分析了《拉姆萨尔公约》中湿地保护的主要文书,并调查了该公约对波兰和俄罗斯立法发展的影响。作者指出,湿地既可以位于特别自然保护区的边界内,也可以位于特别自然保护区之外,这使得湿地的法律保护变得复杂。开发和引入半保护区的新法律概念可以解决这一问题。与自然保护区或国家公园相比,半保护区的制度不那么严格。同时,它们有效地限制了对湿地构成威胁的经济活动和其他类型的活动。这种法律保护的设计为湿地资源的合理利用提供了新的契机。
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引用次数: 0
期刊
Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy
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