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Expedition to the blockchain application potential for higher education institutions 探索高等教育机构的区块链应用潜力

IF 6.9 3区计算机科学 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Blockchain-Research and Applications

Pub Date : 2024-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100203

Matthias Gottlieb , Christina Deutsch , Felix Hoops , Hans Pongratz , Helmut Krcmar

In the education sector, blockchain is currently at the end of the peak of inflated expectations in Gartner’s Hype Cycle. Thus, it is crucial to understand whether this technology meets the expectations of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). We go on an expedition to identify blockchain application scenarios and its potential for HEI administration—the universities are digitalized to just 23.3%.

Current information systems research addresses classifications of blockchain-based projects (application level) rather than their technical realization (protocol level). Thus, when evaluating blockchain application scenarios in HEI administration, we intensively consider the technical side of blockchain-based projects. We perform a three-step approach: (1) systematic literature review, (2) qualitative exploratory semi-structured interviews to supplement information on market-ready solutions, and (3) an evaluation of the potential of the blockchain-based projects identified, based on HEI administration requirements.

We find that the leading blockchain application scenarios are credential verification and record-sharing. At the protocol level, we obtain equivocal results regarding the technical realization of projects, e.g., their underlying blockchain types and storage models. At the application level, when discussing the potential of different projects, we find that most of them address adaptability, complexity decomposition, and cost reduction requirements between HEIs; interest diversity and stakeholder collaboration between HEIs and business actors; privacy and trust between HEIs and students.

在教育领域，区块链目前正处于 Gartner Hype Cycle 中夸大期望的顶峰末期。因此，了解这项技术是否符合高等教育机构（HEIs）的期望至关重要。目前的信息系统研究针对的是基于区块链的项目分类（应用层面），而不是其技术实现（协议层面）。因此，在评估高校管理中的区块链应用场景时，我们着重考虑了基于区块链项目的技术层面。我们采取了三步走的方法：（1）系统性文献综述；（2）定性探索性半结构式访谈，以补充市场上已有解决方案的信息；（3）根据高等院校管理要求，评估已确定的基于区块链项目的潜力。在协议层面，我们在项目的技术实现方面（如底层区块链类型和存储模型）获得了不确定的结果。在应用层面，当讨论不同项目的潜力时，我们发现大多数项目都能满足高等院校之间的适应性、复杂性分解和降低成本要求；高等院校和商业参与者之间的利益多样性和利益相关者合作；高等院校和学生之间的隐私和信任。

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引用次数: 0

Partial pre-image attack on Proof-of-Work based blockchains 对基于工作证明的区块链的部分预映像攻击

IF 6.9 3区计算机科学 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Blockchain-Research and Applications

Pub Date : 2024-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100194

Blockchain is a type of distributed ledger technology that consists of a growing list of records, called blocks, that are securely linked together using cryptography. Each blockchain-based solution deploys a specific consensus algorithm that guarantees the consistency of the ledger over time. The most famous, and yet claimed to be the most secure, is the Proof-of-Work (PoW) consensus algorithm. In this paper, we revisit the fundamental calculations and assumptions of this algorithm, originally presented in the Bitcoin white paper. We break down its claimed calculations in order to better understand the underlying assumptions of the proposal. We also propose a novel formalization model of the PoW mining problem using the Birthday paradox. We utilize this model to formalize and analyze partial pre-image attacks on PoW-based blockchains, with formal analysis that confirms the experimental results and the previously proposed implications. We build on those analyses and propose new concepts for benchmarking the security of PoW-based systems, including Critical Difficulty and Critical Difficulty per given portion. Our calculations result in several important findings, including the profitability of launching partial pre-image attacks on PoW-based blockchains, once the mining puzzle difficulty reaches a given threshold. Specifically, for any compromised portion of the network ( $q < 0.5$ ; honest majority assumption still holds), the attack is formally proven profitable once the PoW mining puzzle difficulty reaches 56 leading zeros.

区块链是一种分布式账本技术，由不断增加的记录列表（称为区块）组成，这些记录通过加密技术安全地连接在一起。每个基于区块链的解决方案都部署了特定的共识算法，以保证账本的长期一致性。最有名、也号称最安全的共识算法是工作证明（PoW）算法。在本文中，我们将重新审视这种算法的基本计算和假设，这些计算和假设最初是在比特币白皮书中提出的。我们对其声称的计算进行了分解，以便更好地理解该提案的基本假设。我们还利用生日悖论为 PoW 挖矿问题提出了一个新的形式化模型。我们利用该模型来形式化和分析对基于 PoW 的区块链的部分预映像攻击，形式化分析证实了实验结果和之前提出的影响。我们以这些分析为基础，提出了基于 PoW 的系统安全性基准的新概念，包括临界难度和每个给定部分的临界难度。我们的计算得出了几个重要发现，包括一旦挖矿谜题难度达到给定阈值，对基于 PoW 的区块链发起部分预映像攻击的盈利能力。具体来说，对于网络的任何受损部分（q<0.5;诚实多数假设仍然成立），一旦 PoW 挖矿谜题难度达到 56 个前导零，攻击就被正式证明是有利可图的。

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引用次数: 0

Analyzing voting power in decentralized governance: Who controls DAOs? 分析去中心化治理中的投票权：谁控制着 DAO？

IF 6.9 3区计算机科学 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Blockchain-Research and Applications

Pub Date : 2024-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100208

Robin Fritsch, Marino Müller, Roger Wattenhofer

We empirically study the state of three prominent DAO governance systems on the Ethereum blockchain: Compound, Uniswap and Ethereum name service (ENS). In particular, we examine how the voting power is distributed in these systems. Using a comprehensive dataset of all governance token holders, delegates, proposals, and votes, we analyze who holds the voting power and how this power is being used to influence governance decisions. While we reveal that the majority of voting power is concentrated in the hands of a small number of addresses, we rarely observe these powerful entities overturning a vote by choosing a different outcome than that of the overall community and less influential voters.

我们对以太坊区块链上三个著名 DAO 治理系统的状态进行了实证研究：Compound、Uniswap 和以太坊名称服务 (ENS)。特别是，我们研究了投票权在这些系统中是如何分配的。利用所有治理代币持有者、代表、提案和投票的综合数据集，我们分析了谁拥有投票权，以及如何利用这种权力来影响治理决策。虽然我们发现大部分投票权集中在少数地址手中，但我们很少观察到这些强大的实体通过选择与整个社区和影响力较小的投票者不同的结果来推翻投票。

引用次数: 0

Prism blockchain enabled Internet of Things with deep reinforcement learning 利用深度强化学习支持物联网的 Prism 区块链

IF 6.9 3区计算机科学 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Blockchain-Research and Applications

Pub Date : 2024-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100205

This paper presents a Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) based Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled Prism blockchain. The recent advancements in the field of IoT motivate the development of a secure infrastructure for storing and sharing vast amounts of data. Blockchain, a distributed and immutable ledger, is best known as a potential solution to data security and privacy for the IoT. The scalability of blockchain, which should optimize the throughput and handle the dynamics of the IoT environment, becomes a challenge due to the enormous amount of IoT data. The critical challenge in scaling blockchain is to guarantee decentralization, latency, and security of the system while optimizing the transaction throughput. This paper presents a DRL-based performance optimization for blockchain-enabled IoT. We consider one of the recent promising blockchains, Prism, as the underlying blockchain system because of its good performance guarantees. We integrate the IoT data into Prism blockchain and optimize the performance of the system by leveraging the Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) method. The DRL method helps to optimize the blockchain parameters like mining rate and mined blocks to adapt to the environment dynamics of the IoT system. Our results show that the proposed method can improve the throughput of Prism blockchain-based IoT systems while preserving Prism performance guarantees. Our scheme can achieve 1.5 times more system rewards than IoT-integrated Prism. In our experimental setup, the proposed scheme could improve the average throughput of the system by about 6,000 transactions per second compared to Prism.

本文介绍了一种基于深度强化学习（DRL）、支持物联网（IoT）的棱镜区块链。物联网领域的最新进展推动了用于存储和共享海量数据的安全基础设施的发展。区块链是一种分布式、不可更改的分类账，是物联网数据安全和隐私的潜在解决方案。由于物联网数据量巨大，区块链的可扩展性成为一项挑战，它应优化吞吐量并处理物联网环境的动态变化。扩展区块链的关键挑战是在优化交易吞吐量的同时保证系统的去中心化、延迟和安全性。本文针对区块链物联网提出了一种基于 DRL 的性能优化方法。我们将最近很有前途的区块链之一 Prism 作为底层区块链系统，因为它具有良好的性能保证。我们将物联网数据集成到 Prism 区块链中，并利用近端策略优化（PPO）方法优化系统性能。DRL 方法有助于优化挖矿率和已挖区块等区块链参数，以适应物联网系统的环境动态。我们的研究结果表明，所提出的方法可以提高基于 Prism 区块链的物联网系统的吞吐量，同时保留 Prism 的性能保证。与物联网集成 Prism 相比，我们的方案可实现 1.5 倍的系统奖励。在我们的实验设置中，与 Prism 相比，我们提出的方案可以将系统的平均吞吐量提高约 6000 笔/秒。

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引用次数: 0

Privacy-preserving pathological data sharing among multiple remote parties 在多个远程方之间共享病理数据时保护隐私

IF 6.9 3区计算机科学 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Blockchain-Research and Applications

Pub Date : 2024-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100204

The sharing of pathological data is highly important in various applications, such as remote diagnosis, graded diagnosis, illness treatment, and specialist system development. However, ensuring reliable, secure, privacy-preserving, and efficient sharing of pathological data poses significant challenges. This paper presents a novel solution that leverages blockchain technology to ensure reliability in pathological data sharing. Additionally, it employs conditional proxy re-encryption (C-PRE) and public key encryption with equality test technology to control the scope and preserve the privacy of shared data. To assess the practicality of our solution, we implemented a prototype system using Hyperledger Fabric and conducted evaluations with various metrics. We also compared the solution with relevant schemes. The results demonstrate that the proposed solution effectively meets the requirements for pathological data sharing and is practical in production scenarios.

病理数据共享在远程诊断、分级诊断、疾病治疗和专家系统开发等各种应用中都非常重要。然而，确保可靠、安全、保护隐私和高效地共享病理数据是一项重大挑战。本文提出了一种新颖的解决方案，利用区块链技术确保病理数据共享的可靠性。此外，它还采用了条件代理重加密（C-PRE）和公钥加密与平等测试技术，以控制共享数据的范围并保护其隐私。为了评估解决方案的实用性，我们使用 Hyperledger Fabric 实现了一个原型系统，并用各种指标进行了评估。我们还将该解决方案与相关方案进行了比较。结果表明，所提出的解决方案有效地满足了病理数据共享的要求，并在生产场景中切实可行。

引用次数: 0

Toward scalable docker-based emulations of blockchain networks for research and development 基于 docker 的可扩展区块链网络仿真，促进研究与开发

IF 6.9 3区计算机科学 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Blockchain-Research and Applications

Pub Date : 2024-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100212

Diego Pennino , Maurizio Pizzonia

Blockchain, like any other complex technology, needs a strong testing methodology to support its evolution in both research and development contexts. Setting up meaningful tests for permissionless blockchain technology is a notoriously complex task for several reasons: software is complex, a large number of nodes are involved, the network is non-ideal, etc. Developers usually adopt small virtual laboratories or costly real devnets based on real software. Researchers usually prefer simulations of a large number of nodes based on simplified models.

In this paper, we aim to obtain the advantages of both approaches, i.e., performing large, realistic, inexpensive, and flexible experiments, using real blockchain software within a virtual environment. To do that, we address the challenge of running large blockchain networks in a single physical machine, leveraging Linux and Docker. We analyze a number of problems that arise when large blockchain networks are emulated, and we provide technical solutions for all of them. Finally, we describe two experiences of emulating fairly large blockchain networks on a single machine: adopting both research-oriented and production-oriented software and involving more than 3000 containers.

区块链与其他复杂技术一样，需要强有力的测试方法来支持其在研究和开发方面的发展。为无权限区块链技术建立有意义的测试是一项众所周知的复杂任务，原因有以下几点：软件复杂、涉及大量节点、网络不理想等。开发人员通常采用小型虚拟实验室或基于真实软件的昂贵真实开发网。在本文中，我们的目标是获得这两种方法的优势，即在虚拟环境中使用真实的区块链软件进行大型、真实、廉价和灵活的实验。为此，我们利用 Linux 和 Docker 解决了在单个物理机中运行大型区块链网络的难题。我们分析了模拟大型区块链网络时出现的一系列问题，并提供了所有问题的技术解决方案。最后，我们介绍了在单台机器上模拟相当大的区块链网络的两种经验：同时采用研究型和生产型软件，并涉及 3000 多个容器。

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引用次数: 0

Multi-task learning for PBFT optimisation in permissioned blockchains 允许区块链中 PBFT 优化的多任务学习

IF 6.9 3区计算机科学 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Blockchain-Research and Applications

Pub Date : 2024-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100206

Finance, supply chains, healthcare, and energy have an increasing demand for secure transactions and data exchange. Permissioned blockchains fulfilled this need thanks to the consensus protocol that ensures that participants agree on a common value. One of the most widely used protocols in private blockchains is the Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT), which tolerates up to one-third of Byzantine nodes, performs within partially synchronous systems, and has superior throughput compared to other protocols. It has, however, an important bandwidth consumption:

2 N (N - 1)

messages are exchanged in a system composed of N nodes to validate only one block.

It is possible to reduce the number of consensus participants by restricting the validation process to nodes that have demonstrated high levels of security, rapidity, and availability. In this paper, we propose the first database that traces the behavior of nodes within a system that performs PBFT consensus. It reflects their level of security, rapidity, and availability throughout the consensus. We first investigate different Single-Task Learning (STL) techniques to classify the nodes within our dataset. Then, using Multi-Task Learning (MTL) techniques, the results are much more interesting, with classification accuracies over 98%. Integrating node classification as a preliminary step to the PBFT protocol optimizes the consensus. In the best cases, it is able to reduce the latency by up to 94% and the communication traffic by up to 99%.

金融、供应链、医疗保健和能源行业对安全交易和数据交换的需求与日俱增。由于共识协议可确保参与者就共同的价值达成一致，许可区块链满足了这一需求。在私有区块链中使用最广泛的协议之一是实用拜占庭容错协议（PBFT），该协议可容忍多达三分之一的拜占庭节点，在部分同步系统中执行，与其他协议相比具有更高的吞吐量。不过，它也有一个重要的带宽消耗问题：在一个由 N 个节点组成的系统中，仅验证一个区块就要交换 2N(N-1)条信息。在本文中，我们提出了首个可追溯执行 PBFT 共识的系统内节点行为的数据库。它反映了整个共识过程中节点的安全性、快速性和可用性水平。我们首先研究了不同的单任务学习（STL）技术，以对数据集中的节点进行分类。然后，使用多任务学习（MTL）技术，结果更加有趣，分类准确率超过 98%。将节点分类作为 PBFT 协议的第一步，可以优化共识。在最佳情况下，它能将延迟时间减少 94%，通信流量减少 99%。

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引用次数: 0

A privacy-preserving data aggregation system based on blockchain in VANET 基于区块链的 VANET 隐私保护数据聚合系统

IF 6.9 3区计算机科学 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Blockchain-Research and Applications

Pub Date : 2024-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100210

Ruicheng Yang , Guofang Dong , Zhengnan Xu , Juangui Ning , Jianming Du

In the realm of vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs), data aggregation plays a pivotal role in bringing together data from multiple vehicles for further processing and sharing. Erroneous data feedback can significantly impact vehicle operations, control, and overall safety, necessitating the assurance of security in vehicular data aggregation. Addressing the security risks and challenges inherent in data aggregation within VANETs, this paper introduces a blockchain-based scheme for secure and anonymous data aggregation. The proposed scheme integrates cloud computing with blockchain technology, presenting a novel blockchain-based data aggregation system that robustly supports efficient and secure data collection in VANETs. Leveraging key escrow resilience mechanisms, the solution ensures the security of system keys, preventing the security problems caused by keys generated by third parties alone in the past. Furthermore, through secondary data aggregation, fine-grained data aggregation is achieved, providing effective support for cloud services in VANETs. The effectiveness of the proposed scheme is confirmed through security analysis and performance evaluations, demonstrating superior computational and communication efficiency compared existing alternatives.

在车辆特设网络（VANET）领域，数据聚合在汇集来自多辆车辆的数据以供进一步处理和共享方面发挥着关键作用。错误的数据反馈会严重影响车辆的运行、控制和整体安全，因此必须确保车辆数据聚合的安全性。针对 VANET 数据聚合中固有的安全风险和挑战，本文介绍了一种基于区块链的安全匿名数据聚合方案。该方案将云计算与区块链技术相结合，提出了一种新颖的基于区块链的数据聚合系统，可为 VANET 中高效、安全的数据收集提供有力支持。该方案利用密钥托管弹性机制，确保了系统密钥的安全性，避免了以往由第三方单独生成密钥所带来的安全问题。此外，通过二次数据聚合，实现了细粒度数据聚合，为 VANET 中的云服务提供了有效支持。通过安全分析和性能评估证实了所提方案的有效性，与现有方案相比，该方案具有更高的计算和通信效率。

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引用次数: 0

nPPoS: Non-interactive practical proof-of-storage for blockchain nPPoS：区块链非交互式实用存储证明

IF 6.9 3区计算机科学 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Blockchain-Research and Applications

Pub Date : 2024-07-19 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100221

Jun Wook Heo, Gowri Ramachandran, Raja Jurdak

Blockchain full nodes are pivotal for transaction availability, as they store the entire ledger, but verifying their storage integrity faces challenges from malicious remote storage attacks such as Sybil, outsourcing, and generation attacks. However, there is no suitable proof-of-storage solution for blockchain full nodes to ensure a healthy number of replicas of the ledger. Existing proof-of-storage solutions are designed for general-purpose settings where a data owner uses secret information to verify storage, rendering them unsuitable for blockchain where proof-of-storage must be fast, publicly verifiable, and data owner-agnostic. This paper introduces a decentralised and quantum-resistant solution named Non-interactive Practical Proof of Storage (nPPoS) with an asymmetric encoding and decoding scheme for fast and secure PoStorage and Zero-Knowledge Scalable Transparent Arguments of Knowledge (zk-STARKs) for public variability in blockchain full nodes. The algorithm with asymmetric times for encoding and decoding creates unique block replicas and corresponding proofs for each storage node to mitigate malicious remote attacks and minimise performance degradation. The intentional resource-intensive encoding deters attacks, while faster decoding minimises performance overhead. Through zk-STARKs, nPPoS achieves public verifiability, enabling one-to-many verification for scalability, quantum resistance and decentralisation. It also introduces a two-phase randomisation technique and a time-weighted trustworthiness measurement for scalability and adaptability.

区块链全节点是交易可用性的关键，因为它们存储了整个账本，但验证其存储完整性面临着恶意远程存储攻击（如 Sybil、外包和生成攻击）的挑战。然而，目前还没有合适的区块链全节点存储证明解决方案来确保账本有健康的副本数量。现有的存储证明解决方案是为数据所有者使用秘密信息验证存储的通用设置而设计的，因此不适合区块链，因为区块链的存储证明必须快速、可公开验证，并且与数据所有者无关。本文介绍了一种名为 "非交互式实用存储证明（nPPoS）"的去中心化和抗量子解决方案，它采用非对称编码和解码方案，用于快速、安全的 PoStorage 和零知识可扩展透明知识论证（zk-STARKs），以实现区块链全节点的公共可变性。该算法的编码和解码时间不对称，为每个存储节点创建唯一的区块副本和相应的证明，以减轻恶意远程攻击并最大限度地减少性能下降。有意识的资源密集型编码可阻止攻击，而更快的解码可将性能开销降至最低。通过zk-STARKs，nPPoS实现了公共可验证性，实现了一对多的验证，从而实现了可扩展性、量子抗性和去中心化。它还引入了两阶段随机化技术和时间加权可信度测量，以实现可扩展性和适应性。

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引用次数: 0

PrivySeC: A secure and privacy-compliant distributed framework for personal data sharing in IoT ecosystems PrivySeC：物联网生态系统中个人数据共享的安全且符合隐私标准的分布式框架

IF 6.9 3区计算机科学 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Blockchain-Research and Applications

Pub Date : 2024-07-09 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100220

Imran Makhdoom, Mehran Abolhasan, Justin Lipman, Massimo Piccardi, Daniel Franklin

The contemporary era is experiencing an unprecedented dependence on data generated by individuals via an array of interconnected devices constituting the Internet of Things (IoT). The information amassed through IoT devices serves many objectives, including prescriptive analytics and predictive maintenance, preemptive healthcare measures, disaster mitigation, operational efficiency, and increased yield. In contrast, most applications or systems that rely on user-generated data to fulfill their business objectives face challenges in adhering to privacy protocols. Consequently, users are exposed to many privacy risks. Such infringements upon privacy provisions give rise to apprehensions regarding the authenticity of the processed data. Hence, this paper presents the weaknesses and challenges in current practices and proposes “PrivySeC”, a Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT)-based framework for privacy preserving and secure sharing of personally and non-personally identifiable information. The security analysis indicates that the proposed solution ensures data privacy by design and complies with most of the requirements mandated by various privacy regulations. Similarly, PrivySeC promises low transaction latency and provides high throughput. Although we have created a privacy-preserving solution for sharing smart farm data, it can be customized to meet the specific privacy requirements of individual applications.

当今时代，人们对个人通过构成物联网（IoT）的一系列互联设备产生的数据的依赖程度前所未有。通过物联网设备积累的信息可实现许多目标，包括规范性分析和预测性维护、先发制人的医疗保健措施、减灾、运营效率和提高产量。相比之下，大多数依赖用户生成的数据来实现业务目标的应用程序或系统在遵守隐私协议方面都面临挑战。因此，用户面临许多隐私风险。这种对隐私条款的侵犯会引起人们对所处理数据真实性的担忧。因此，本文介绍了当前实践中的弱点和挑战，并提出了 "PrivySeC"--一种基于分布式账本技术（DLT）的框架，用于保护隐私并安全共享个人和非个人身份信息。安全分析表明，拟议的解决方案从设计上确保了数据隐私，并符合各种隐私法规规定的大多数要求。同样，PrivySeC 承诺交易延迟低，吞吐量高。虽然我们已经为共享智能农场数据创建了一个保护隐私的解决方案，但它还可以进行定制，以满足个别应用的特定隐私要求。

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引用次数: 0